Areas of application

In the natural and engineering sciences, one distinguishes between:

• more theoretical theses (simulation, calculation)
• practical theses (experiment, field trial, experimental setup; see Hirsch-Weber et al. 2016, p. 81)

In the social and economic sciences, theses are often empirical, i.e., data are collected, e.g., through a questionnaire or interviews.

Literature: Hirsch-Weber, Andreas et al. (2016): Wissenschaftliches Schreiben und Abschlussarbeit in Natur- und Ingenieurwissenschaften Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer. Full text via VPN.

Across disciplinary boundaries, the research method should be comprehensible for the target group and justified in a plausible way. Usually, the method is explained and justified briefly in the introduction or in detail in a separate chapter.

Material list for empirical work

Frequently asked questions

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Empirical statements

An empirical statement is usually based on (external) empirical research. A source reference is absolutely necessary here.

Example: “The suspect rate among 14- to under 18-year-olds decreased from 7.0 % in 2007 to 5.5 % in 2015” (Police Crime Statistics, 2015).

If the empirical statement is based on your own observations or research, a source reference is not required, but you should document the research process to allow assessment of its validity. It is not necessary to refer to sources when mentioning undisputed statements and general knowledge in your field.

However, as soon as you give specific information (such as percentages), you do need to refer to sources.

Analytical statements

When you make analytical statements based on your own reasoning, a source is not required. For example, you can draw the following conclusion if you previously presented refugee numbers with sources:

Example: “The signifcant variation in numbers of refugees with secured residence status in Germany and Hungary show that the two countries pursue different goals in their refugee policies.”

However, if you refer to a hypothesis proposed in literature, you must prove it with a source. This is always necessary when there are multiple, sometimes conflicting positions.

If you refer to the ideas of other authors and draw your own conclusions from them, you must make it clear where your own thoughts begin.

If it is undisputed basic knowledge in the field, a source is not required.

Therefore, the often-given advice in guides is not always correct: “Prove everything that does not come from you”.

Normative statements

With a normative statement, you indicate that a behavior or procedure conforms to or should conform to a generally accepted norm. Note: if this statement represents your own opinion, you must justify it. Your reasons should not be based solely on gut feeling.

Example: “In my view, a humane refugee policy should reconsider the distinction between economic refugees and political refugees, because …”.

You can include such statements in the conclusion when you make your own recommendations for action.

Make sure to clearly separate these from empirical and analytical statements.

Frequently asked questions

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What belongs in the methodology chapter?

For empirical studies, the methods you used to collect or generate your data and the methods used for analysis and interpretation belong in a separate chapter of your academic paper, together with a justification for your choice of methods.

For literature and theoretical papers, you may also choose, in consultation with your supervisor, to outline the procedure you followed. Since the method here essentially consists of researching, reading, and evaluating literature, however, a separate chapter is not usually included. If you find it useful, you can explain in the introduction which search terms, academic sources, theories, publication years, and languages etc. you focused on and how you proceeded.

In the methodology chapter, describe your methodological approach as precisely and transparently as possible. Focus on who did what, how, and when?

Ideally, keep a research diary in which you record all relevant steps, observations, and your thoughts throughout the entire process. This ensures that you won’t miss any important information later.

How do I phrase the methodology chapter?

When writing the methodology section, maintain a factual, report-like style and avoid overly detailed narratives – focus on the essentials. Justify your decisions and, where appropriate, refer to relevant literature.

• Structure: Organize the methodology section logically, for example, by discussing the type of research, data collection, data analysis, and applied quality criteria separately.
• Justifications: Explain why you chose certain methods or steps, and refer to relevant academic literature to support your decisions.
• Avoid repetition: Make sure to not repeat yourself and concentrate on aspects relevant to your research question.
• Objective style: Use objective and precise language. Avoid personal opinions or evaluations.

Examples from the methodology section of a student research paper

Describing the methodology is an optional part of the structure of an academic paper.

Frequently asked questions

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Characteristics of a qualitative study

Qualitative social research has developed a wide range of research methods and practices over time. Despite different perspectives, there are basic principles that most qualitative researchers agree on. These are the main characteristics of qualitative research:

• Theory building: In qualitative research, researchers build their theories following either an inductive or a deductive approach. With an inductive approach, you start by analyzing individual cases to draw general conclusions and ultimately develop a theory or at least a detailed description of the phenomenon. With a deductive approach, you apply an existing theory to the data material.
• Contextuality: The relationship between actions and statements is emphasized. The meaning and significance of actions and statements always arise in a specific social, cultural, situational, and historical context.
• Lived reality: The goal is to stay as close as possible to the real-life experiences of the people being studied. The research is oriented towards everyday life and the knowledge that people in their specific environment have.
• Openness and flexibility: The aim is to approach the study participants, the research situation, and the methods as openly as possible, without a rigid plan.

How do I conduct qualitative research?

Research question. You first develop an open research question. Your question focuses mainly on opinions, values, and qualitative statements that give you insight into social processes and include theories about social developments. It is perfectly fine if your question changes during the research process.

Data collection. You collect primary material. Typical data collection methods are:

• Interviews (narrative, biographical, semi-structured)
• Participant observations (field notes)
• Expert interviews with professionals as well as clients

Audio or video data are converted into text form through transcription or summarization.

Ensure strict anonymization so that the data cannot be traced back to individuals or institutions.

Data analysis. You systematically and transparently analyze the collected data. The analysis follows the logic of qualitative research: You look for individual and collective meanings and motives to understand the research field. Typical analysis methods are:

• Qualitative content analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Grounded theory methodology
• Objective hermeneutics
• Documentary method

It is important to document your procedure and the execution of your research so that you can later describe it transparently in your written paper. Readers should understand how sampling, data collection, and data analysis were carried out.

At the end of your study, you discuss and interpret your findings.

Frequently asked questions

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Elements of a quantitative paper

An empirical paper with a quantitative approach tests hypotheses derived from theory and usually contains the following elements:

• Discussion of the problem in relation to the current academic literature
• Own research questions embedded in or derived from this discussion
• Implementation of these research questions into testable hypotheses
• Description of research methods: data collection methods, e.g. questionnaire design, sample design
• Analysis methods: study sample, data analysis methods, presentation of results, findings regarding confirmation or rejection of hypotheses
• Discussion and interpretation of the results

Quantitative methods of data collection

There are different methods of data collection for a quantitative study. The typical ones are:

• Counting
• Assessing
• Testing
• Surveying
• Observing
• Measuring

Frequently asked questions

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