Why cite at all?

• To prove facts: You state where your information comes from, ideally tracing it back to the original source. This not only respects copyright but also gives your readers the opportunity to examine methods and details for themselves.

Example: 90 percent of Wikipedia authors are male (Bayer 2013).

• To build on existing knowledge: In academia, you don’t have to reinvent the wheel. You cite to refer to the ideas, theories, and findings of others – allowing you to continue the discourse rather than starting from scratch.

Example: The term “invention” is often equated with the concepts of “discovery” or “creation” (cf. Müller, 1998, p. 13).

• To keep it concise: If something is already written elsewhere, a reference is usually sufficient. In academic writing, it’s common to trust the audience to either accept the claim or check the source themselves.

Example: Outreach services are a traditional methodological approach in social work. For centuries, almoners would visit people experiencing hardship to assess their needs and provide aid. At the same time, they were tasked with monitoring how the poor lived and preventing abuse of the support system (cf. detailed discussion in Sachße/Tennstedt 1980).

Quotes often serve several purposes at once:

Example: With regard to the use of ocean thermal energy for power generation, research on structural pipes between 1970 and 2000 focused on using water as a heat carrier. Heat transfer and resistance coefficients were measured [6–17]. Companies provided additional measurements using water [18, 19]. A few studies also examined gases as heat carriers [11, 20].

What types of quotations are there?

There are two types of quotations: direct and indirect. In both cases, you must always add a reference to show where the quotation comes from.

With direct quotations, you reproduce the original wording exactly. This is marked with quotation marks and a reference.

Example: “One of the main pioneers of this model is Goffman with his concept of stigma or stigmatization” (Metzler, 2011, p. 101).

Use direct quotations sparingly. In the humanities and social sciences, you should cite directly when the wording is particularly striking or original. In the natural and engineering sciences, direct quotations are rarely used.

With indirect quotes, you take ideas, results, etc. from another text but rephrase them in your own words. These also need a reference.

Example: According to Metzler, Goffman – who developed the concept of stigma or stigmatization – is one of the key early figures of symbolic interactionism (2011, p. 101).

How do I cite?

There are many ways to cite in academic writing: footnotes, in-text references with author names and year of publication, numbers, or combinations of numbers and letters in square brackets.

There’s no single “correct” citation style. What matters is that you stay consistent throughout your entire text and don’t mix styles!

How do I know which citation style to use?

• Ask your lecturers – they often have a preferred style you should follow.
• Learn about the conventions in your discipline. See our articles: Citing in the Social Sciences, Citing in Business Studies, Citing in Engineering and Natural Sciences.
• If your lecturers don’t specify a style, you can choose one yourself. It’s best to go with a well-documented style (DIN, Harvard, APA, IEEE etc.).

What is a bibliography?

The bibliography includes all the sources you cited in your text – and only those. As it should allow readers to trace each source, the entries must be detailed enough to locate the exact work if needed.

The bibliography must be complete and consistent.

The format of the bibliography depends on the citation style used. Sources are usually listed alphabetically.

What do I have to cite?

In academic writing, you must mark every idea that is not your own. The only exception is general knowledge within your discipline.

That sounds easier than it is. Especially at the beginning of your studies, it can be difficult to recognize what counts as general knowledge. The good news: it gets easier over time. Until then, these rules of thumb may help:

You don’t necessarily need to cite:

• Things your readers are expected to know.
• What common sense would suggest.
• Content found in general reference works.

You must always cite:

• If an idea or result can be traced back to a specific author or study.
• If the statement is controversial or debatable.
• Any wording you copy exactly.
• If you include data from other research.

Frequently asked questions

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Citing sources

You must cite all sources and tools you used in your work, such as publications, textbooks, software, etc.

This also applies to translation tools or ChatGPT.

In principle, only sources that can be read and verified by others should be cited.

You can cite either verbatim (direct quotation) or paraphrased in your own words (indirect quotation).

In the Natural Sciences, it is common to paraphrase sources – in other words, to read the original text and summarize the relevant aspects in your own words.

For more than two authors, abbreviate with “et al.”, e.g. (Böhme et al. 2014).

When citing, you must also include the exact page number of the reference, e.g. [5, p. 854].

For multiple pages, indicate the range, e.g. [5, p. 852–856].

In direct quotations, the cited text is placed in quotation marks and reproduced exactly as in the original source:

• If words must be inserted for better understanding, enclose them in square brackets.
• If parts are omitted, indicate this with […]. This is only acceptable if the meaning remains unchanged.

It is important that each reference appears only once in the bibliography.

For textbooks or sources from which you cite different sections, also include the respective page number in the in-text reference.

In the bibliography at the end of your work, list all literature you used in full.

Basic subject knowledge is excluded from citation requirements, e.g. you do not need to specify where you obtained the molar mass data.

Avoiding plagiarism

If you do not identify direct or indirect quotations from the literature as such, this constitutes plagiarism.

Plagiarism may result in your work being graded as failed. If you are unsure, ask your supervisor.

Citation style and bibliography

Please note the information provided in the general Moodle course of the Faculty of AC for guidance on citation styles and suitable reference management programs.

Bibliography:

• The bibliography is a complete list of the sources you used, included at the end of your work. List only those sources you have cited in your text.
• The bibliography should allow readers to trace the sources you used. Entries must be detailed enough for readers to locate and consult the source themselves.
• The bibliography must be complete and consistent in format.
• References are ordered according to their appearance in the text. Each entry ends with a period.
• If you use a citation style other than the one recommended by the faculty, discuss it with your supervisor.
• Online sources must also be cited, always including the date of access.
• Abbreviations of chemistry journals can be found on the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) website.

Example: U. Böhme, S. Tesch, Citing: Why and How? Nachr. Chem. 2014, 62 (9), p. 852–857.

Frequently asked questions

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Title page

Make sure that all essential information is included on your title page:

• Topic of the thesis
• Thesis / Master Thesis / Project Report for the degree Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) or Master of Science (M.Sc.)
• By Jane Doe
• Supervisor: Prof. Prof. Dr. Firstname Lastname
• Nuremberg, DD.MM.YYYY (Summer Semester YYYY)

Examination declaration

The statutory declaration must not be missing from any thesis:

I, Jane Doe, Matriculation No. 123456789, certify that I have written this thesis independently, have not submitted it elsewhere for examination purposes, have indicated all sources and tools used, and have marked literal and analogous quotes as such.

Plagiarism Declaration in Accordance with Examination Rules: I herewith declare that I have worked on this thesis independently. Furthermore, it was not submitted to any other examining committee. All sources and tools used in this thesis, including literal and analogous quotes, have been identified.

Do not forget the date and your signature.

Publication declaration

This page must include the declaration according to § 19 para. 8 APO and the publication declaration of the thesis.

Here is the form.

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements should not exceed one page. They may also be omitted entirely.

Summary

This section contains a brief summary of the most important results of your work.

Remember that this section is the “business card” of your work.

Structure and features:

• Total 250 to 300 words
• Purpose / Objective (5–10 sentences)
• Method (1–2 sentences)
• Results (2–3 sentences)
• Value / Benefit (2–3 sentences)

The summary is also called “abstract”.

For the Master Project Report, the summary should be written in English only.

Used symbols and abbreviations

This section lists all symbols and abbreviations used as a reference.

Always make sure to follow DIN EN ISO 80000.

Latin symbols:

Greek symbols:

Contents – example

Introduction

The introduction presents the background of your thesis.

It informs readers about the important scientific, economic, or ecological contexts of your task.

It should clarify which current problems exist and why you aim to solve certain tasks in your work.

The introduction typically spans 1–2 pages.

Your introduction should answer the following questions:

• Why is your work important?
• What contribution does your work make?
• What is the objective of your work? (research question, hypothesis, research goal)
• How was the research conducted?
• If applicable: How is the work structured?

Theory or state of the art

The “theory” or “state of the art” section provides information on the most important theoretical and practical foundations of your thesis.

Ideally, use descriptive titles instead of just “Theory” or “State of the Art.”

If applicable, multiple chapters may be useful: Optionally work with subchapters.

Here you present the results of your literature research.

This also includes a critical assessment and discussion of the literature. After this, the readers understand the current state of knowledge or state of the art in the task area.

This section allows your audience to understand the type of work conducted, the analyses, and the subsequent evaluation or discussion of the results.

Focus on the essential aspects of your thesis, not on generally known fundamentals.

Information that is not necessary for understanding your work or not applied should not be described here.

Chapters 1 and 2 should together comprise approximately one-third of your thesis: guideline is 15–20 pages.

Objectives and problem solving

Clarify with your supervisor whether a separate chapter for objectives and problem solving is needed or whether these aspects can be included in the introduction.

If you use a separate chapter “Objectives and problem solving”, make sure not to repeat the introduction.

If you decide to include this chapter for a better understanding of your thesis, ensure that it fully covers the objectives or task description.

If your thesis involves multiple tasks contributing to the overall solution, it is helpful for readers to understand which tasks need to be completed and how you intend to solve them.

Explain your strategy for solving the overall research question so that it is clear why you perform certain experiments or measurements.

Materials and methods

In this section, you document your experiments or measurements.

Separate the description of the equipment used from the explanation of the procedure.

The following questions should be answered:

• Which devices (manufacturer), chemicals etc. were used?
• Which techniques were applied?
• How exactly did you perform the work?
• Why was this specific setup chosen?
• How were the obtained results analyzed?
• Are there factors that could influence the research?

Equipment:

Indicate which chemicals (incl. manufacturer and purity used) / devices were employed and how the experimental setup looked.

Methods:

Describe how you conducted your experiments or measurements.

The description must be such that your procedure is understandable and reproducible for the readers.

This section documents the experimental procedure so that other professionals can reproduce the experiments.

Record all parameters relevant for later analysis (e.g. device parameters, eluents, preparation of standard and sample solutions etc.).

The traceability of your results is a strict requirement of quality assurance systems based on ISO 9000 ff.

Measurement results and interpretations do not belong in this chapter.

If you develop a method, indicate the starting and final method and if applicable relevant intermediate steps.

Results and discussion

Present your obtained measurement results – display them in tables!

Everything presented in tables, figures, or schematics must also be introduced and commented on in the text.

If you have many spectra, chromatograms, or similar data, show only selected examples.

Avoid overly detailed displays in huge tables or too many measurement charts. If necessary, these are better placed in the appendix.

Your experimental results should be analyzed with respect to the fundamentals described in section 2 and, if possible, supported by statistical data, e.g. coefficient of variation, confidence interval, statistical significance of differences, number of replicates etc.

Remember: a picture is worth a thousand words.

In the discussion, evaluate the results. Discuss how well the results fit theoretical frameworks or models, and how well they correspond with known literature results.

Also discuss the consequences of the results with respect to the research question.

It is often useful to combine results and discussion in one chapter and use a thematic structure.

This ensures that the obtained results are immediately interpreted and the derived conclusions are applied to further development.

Results: Neutral (!) presentation; no interpretation or personal opinion; concise and precise numbers, data, and facts; illustration of results using tables or charts (must be introduced in the text and have self-explanatory captions).

Discussion: Discussion based on derived diagrams, tables etc.; interpretation of results; What do the results mean? Why are they interesting? What can we learn from the results? Discussion must answer the research question! Discussion is more than personal opinion; What does the literature say? How can the results be explained or reconciled with the literature? Where are differences compared to the literature? Why do they exist?

Contents of a discussion: Point out similarities and differences; describe causes and effects; compare with literature, derive, confirm or refute hypotheses; support your discussion with derived data (diagrams), calculations, or models.

Conclusion

Provide – in a maximum of two pages – information about the results you have achieved regarding the fulfillment of your research question and the consequences you derive from these results.

The conclusion should consist of three parts:

• Summary
• Limitations
• Outlook / Further Work

Summary:

• Summary of the most important findings from the work
• Should not contain new aspects
• The “promises” from the introduction must be kept

Show once again how great your work is (but do not exaggerate and always stay neutral).

– Prof. Dr. Dirk Sachsenheimer

Limitations:

• Specify limitations of your research (methodological, temporal, data collection)
• 3 to 5 aspects

Outlook:

• What would / could you research next based on your findings?
• 3 to 5 aspects

Literature

All sources used (textbooks, publications etc.) must be cited.

At the end of your work, include a complete literature list that details all sources.

More information on citing in chemistry and the literature list can be found in this article: Citing in Chemistry.

Used tools

All tools used (programs, AI-tools etc.) must be indicated.

This also includes Word, Excel, calculator etc. with version and exact name indicated.

Coordinate with your supervisors regarding whether and to what extent you may use generative AI-tools in your final thesis.

If you have questions or uncertainties, you can always contact your supervisors.

Appendix or attachment

All information necessary for understanding the work, which due to its volume or lower relevance does not fit into the main sections, is placed in the appendix.

Frequently asked questions

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General regulations

If you refer to the same source repeatedly, you can abbreviate it from the second short reference onward with “ibid.” (ibidem). This reference always refers to the most recently cited source. Changed page numbers are indicated e.g. as follows: (ibid., p. 44).

Academic titles, honorary titles, or professional titles (such as e.g. Prof. Dr.) are not included in the short reference.

It is not impolite but rather standard practice not to mention authors’ first names in the text. Under no circumstances should forms of address such as “Mr.” or “Ms.” be used.

There are hundreds of different citation styles that vary by discipline, publication, and personal preferences. The following explains the citation style developed specifically for the Faculty of Social Sciences: “Faculty SW”.

This is a citation style that uses short references in the text. It is based on the “Guidelines for Manuscript Preparation” of the German Psychological Society [DGPs] (2007), which largely correspond to the internationally established regulations of the American Psychological Association (APA).

Instead of an in-text short reference, you can alternatively use a short reference in footnotes. Discuss specific questions about using footnotes directly with your supervisors, e.g. regarding the use of long references. Otherwise, the recommendations presented here for short references apply.

If you do not cite a source, it is assumed that the facts or arguments presented in the text are either your own thoughts or undisputed basic knowledge in the field. For example, you do not have to prove that resocialization or experiential education are fields of social work.

Individual authors

The short reference essentially contains three elements: the authors’ last names, the year of publication, and the relevant page numbers. If no page numbers are given in the publication or they are not relevant, indicating the year of publication is sufficient. If the authors are already mentioned in the same sentence, you do not need to repeat them in the short reference.

Examples:

In Thiersch (1986), everyday life is the starting point for his theory of life-world-oriented social work.

Life-world orientation in social work refers to people’s everyday lives (Thiersch, 1986).

Corporate authors

Institutions, organizations, associations, and companies can take the place of authors in source references. These are called corporate authors. If it is common for the institution to use an abbreviation, you may do so. In this case, provide the full name followed by the abbreviation in square brackets on first reference. For subsequent mentions, the abbreviation is sufficient. In the reference list, use the full name.

Examples:

First mention of the corporate author: (Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs [BMAS], 1999)

Subsequent mentions of the corporate author: (BMAS, 1999)

Mention of the corporate author in the reference list: Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs [BMAS] (1999)

Incomplete information

Sometimes the necessary information is incomplete. Especially for online documents, the date, authors, or page numbers may be missing. Naturally, you can only provide what is available. If authors are missing, the responsible organization (association, institution, publisher) replaces the authors. If the year of publication is missing, you can use the abbreviation “n. d.” (not dated) instead of the year to indicate that this information is not available for this source. Often, you can find the missing information in the website’s imprint.

When using online sources, make sure to use sources where the authors are at least identifiable. Sources without identifiable authors or publishers are only suitable in exceptional cases in academic work.

Example:

(Wildwasser Nürnberg e. V., n. d.)

Two authors

Two authors are connected in the text with the word “and”, whereas in parentheses and tables they are connected with the ampersand (&).

Examples:

According to Grimmer and Neukorn, psychotherapy and coaching “can be placed on a continuum with two poles and a boundary and overlap area in the middle” (2010, p. 47).

They consider it more precise to place psychotherapy and coaching “on a continuum with two poles and a boundary and overlap area in the middle” (Grimmer & Neukorn, 2010, p. 47).

More than two authors

For three to six authors, list all names the first time they appear. For subsequent mentions, list only the first author followed by “et al.” (lat. for “et alii”, eng.: “and others”), the year, and the pages.

Examples:

First mention in text: Müller, Meier, Huber, and Schmidt (2001, p. 12)

First mention in parentheses: (Müller, Meier, Huber & Schmidt, 2001, p. 12)

Subsequent mentions: Müller et al. (2001, p. 13) or (Müller et al., 2001, p. 13)

For more than six authors, list only the first author in the short reference, followed by et al., the year, and the pages.

Examples:

Full reference: Huelmann, Thorben; Ferdinand, Hanna; Gebauer, Miriam; McElvany, Nele; Bos, Wilfried; Köller, Olaf & Schöber, Christian (2014): Accuracy of teachers’ judgments regarding students’ self-efficacy beliefs. In: Heinz Günter Holtappels, Ariane Willems, Michael Pfeifer, Wilfried Bos & Nele McElvany (Vol.): Yearbook of School Development, eds. 18. Data, examples, and perspectives (pp. 298–320). Weinheim: Juventa.

Short reference in text: Huelmann et al. (2014) examine the accuracy of teachers’ judgments regarding their students’ self-efficacy beliefs.

Quotes spanning multiple pages

If a direct or indirect quote in the original text spans more than one page, indicate this with “f.” for the next page or “ff.” for several following pages. This is added directly after the page number without a space. Alternatively, you can specify the exact page range. If the relevant passage spans more than three pages, always indicate the first and last page.

Examples:

Each statement contains four aspects: factual content, appeal, self-revelation, and relationship (Schulz von Thun, 1981, p. 25ff.).

The four-phase model of grief according to Kast is presented in the following (1982, pp. 20–27).

Direct quotes

There are two types of quotes: direct (verbatim) and indirect. For both types, always provide a reference indicating the source.

For direct quotes, you reproduce the original text exactly in your writing. This is indicated using quotation marks and a short reference. Use direct quotes sparingly, only when the wording in the source is particularly original or concise.

Example:

“Working with other people’s academic texts is more than just putting quotation marks in the right place” (Pohl, 2007, p. 295).

If the direct quote contains a mistake, indicate it with “[sic!]” (lat.: “thus”) to show the error was in the original.

Example:

“With work 40. [sic!] everything changes: The world of work is transformed by Big Data, Cloud Computing, and robots” (Mustermann, 2017, p. 24).

Omissions and grammatical changes in direct quotes must be marked with […] unless the omission occurs at the very beginning of the quote.

Omissions and additions can make sentences less understandable. Always check carefully whether it is truly necessary and useful to omit or add anything.

Example:

Kohl concludes that “the deliberate intention to ‘cheat’ […] was only [sic!] recognizable in exceptional cases” (2001, p. 168f.).

Long direct quotes are rarely necessary. If used, for quotes longer than 40 words, a special, space-saving format is recommended: Set the quote as a single block with indentation on both sides. Do not italicize, as this reduces readability. Quotation marks may be omitted in block quotes but may also be used.

Ensure that the formatting clearly identifies the text as a direct quote. A short reference after the quote is mandatory. Importantly, integrate the content of the quote into your own text and refer to it.

Indirect quotes

In indirect (paraphrased) quotes, you take ideas from other texts but put them in your own words. Academic works usually contain far more indirect than direct quotes. Indirect quotes must also include a reference.

Example:

Experiences with voluntary self-monitoring show that students generally reject plagiarism, but their texts often still contain citation errors (Kohl, 2001, p. 168f.).

When paraphrasing longer passages, you don’t need to repeat the source constantly. However, it must always be clear whose arguments you are referring to in your academic work.

It’s best to make it clear through your wording that the short reference applies to a longer section.

Example:

The qualitative method of group discussion was developed to capture the dynamic formation of opinions (Lamnek, 2005, p. 103). According to Lamnek, it is characterized by a detailed guide. Questions are prepared in advance and an order is established in which various topics are discussed. I applied this method in a modified form in this bachelor thesis. For example, the group members completed an online survey about their living situation in advance.

In this example, the wording and reference make it clear that the first three sentences reproduce Lamnek’s description, and the fourth sentence begins the author’s own position.

More on longer indirect quotes can be found in this article: Longer indirect quotes in social sciences.

Citing laws

When citing laws or other legal norms for the first time in the text, provide the official title and abbreviation, e.g. “Civil Code (BGB)”. When the same law is mentioned again in the text, the following applies:

• If the law stands alone, without a paragraph or article, write out the full name, e.g.: “Civil Code”.
• If a paragraph or article is cited, after the first full mention, use the short form, e.g.: “§ 1626 BGB”.

When citing the current version of a law, no additional source information is needed – the law does not need to appear in the bibliography. Do not cite the work from which you took the law. For more details, e.g., older versions, see the article Citing laws.

Example:

The definition of “youth” in the Social Code (SGB) is narrowly defined as 14 to 18 years (§7 para. 1 no. 2 SGB VIII). Up to age 27, the term “young adult” applies (§7 para. 1 no. 3 SGB VIII).

Common mistakes

• Your text consists of a string of paraphrased or direct quotes
• Quotes are missing or incorrectly cited
• You rely on a single source (possibly even Wikipedia …) despite a broad academic discourse on the topic

Frequently asked questions

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General regulations

Basically, when you quote indirectly, the extent of the quote must be clearly indicated – that is, it must be clear where the quote begins and ends. It is usually not sufficient to simply list the source at the end of a paragraph or chapter.

If you do not cite a source, it is assumed that it is either undisputed basic knowledge in this field or your own thoughts.

If you quote longer passages from a source, it would be correct but not necessarily elegant or common to repeat the source after every sentence. Therefore, the following shows some additional options.

With explicit reference

In the text, in the short reference, or in the footnote, you indicate that your quote refers to a longer passage:

At the end of the paraphrased passages, you include the short reference again, e.g.: (Müller et al. 2012, p. 11ff.). This clearly marks the extent.

Through formulation

You can also make it clear through your wording that the short reference refers to a longer passage.

In this example, it is clear through wording and source citation that the first three sentences reproduce Lamnek’s description, and in the fourth sentence the author’s own position begins (“… I applied this in this bachelor thesis …”).

By naming the authors

You can repeatedly mention the authors so that it is clear in the text that these are not your own thoughts.

Literature: Pohl, Thorsten (2007): Studies on the ontogenesis of scientific writing. Tübingen: Niemeyer, p. 493.

Frequently asked questions

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General guidelines

Basically, when you paraphrase, the extent of the citation must be clear, meaning it must be obvious where the quotation begins and ends. It is usually not enough to just mention the source at the end of a paragraph or chapter.

If you do not mention a source, it is assumed that it either represents undisputed basic knowledge in this field or your own thoughts.

When citing longer passages from a source, it would be correct, but not necessarily elegant, to repeat the source after every sentence. Below we show some alternative ways.

With explicit indication

You make it clear in the text, in the short reference, or in a footnote that your citation refers to a longer passage:

At the end of the passage, you then include the short reference again, e.g., (Müller et al. 2012, p. 11ff.). This clearly marks the extent of the citation.

By positioning the source reference

You can indicate that the short reference refers to a longer passage by placing it at the end of the paragraph after the final punctuation mark.

Contrary to the initial explanation, some lecturers are fine with adding a source only at the end of a paragraph after the final punctuation, which then applies to the whole paragraph.

If the source refers only to one sentence, it should be placed before the period. If it refers to an entire paragraph, the footnote comes after the period. To mark the beginning of a paraphrase, explicit indications and formulations in the text are useful (see above).

Frequently asked questions

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General regulations

The bibliography contains the complete bibliographic details of the sources cited in the text. The types of sources are not separated; instead, all sources are listed alphabetically in a single list. If you are unsure about the completeness of your source information, check the German National Bibliography database, which records all publications released in Germany.

Sources are arranged alphabetically according to the decisive ordering word, usually by the last name of the first author. Titles and subtitles of sources are separated by a period if the source itself does not provide another symbol, such as e.g. a dash or a colon.

Academic titles, honorary titles, or professional designations (such as e.g. Prof. Dr.) are not included in the bibliography or short references.

If authors have written multiple works, arrange them by publication year, starting with the oldest. If multiple texts by the same author were published in the same year, distinguish them with lowercase letters and arrange them alphabetically by title.

Examples:

Butterwegge, Christoph (2010): Neoliberalism …
Butterwegge, Christoph (2014a): Poverty …
Butterwegge, Christoph (2014b): Critique …

We recommend using single line spacing and larger spacing between entries with a hanging indent. The title of the work is always italicized – depending on the type of source, the title may vary. For journal or anthology contributions, always italicize the journal title or the anthology title, not the article itself.

Below you can see how different types of texts are listed in the bibliography.

Recording monographs

A monograph is a book by one person or by several authors, as long as no individual contributions are identifiable.

Last Name, First Name (Year): Title. Place: Publisher.

Examples:

Butterwegge, Carolin (2010): Poverty of Children with a Migration Background. Extent, Forms, and Causes. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

Maturana, Humberto R. & Varela, Francisco (1987): The Tree of Knowledge. The Biological Roots of Human Understanding. Bern: Scherz.

Arnold, Rolf; Krämer-Stürzl, Antje & Siebert, Horst (1999): Instructor’s Guide. Planning and Lesson Preparation in Training and Adult Education. Berlin: Cornelsen.

From the 2nd edition onward, indicate the edition number. Additions such as “expanded edition” or “revised and updated edition” should be abbreviated.

Example:

Schilling, Johannes & Zeller, Susanne (2012): Social Work. History – Theory – Profession (5th, rev. ed.). Munich: Reinhardt.

For “classics,” you can indicate the first edition after stating the edition used in parentheses so that readers can track the age of the source.

Example:

Durkheim, Émile (1983): Suicide (13th ed.). Berlin: Suhrkamp (first published 1893).

If multiple places of publication or publishers are listed, only the first is used with the addition “et al.”.

Contributions from anthologies, encyclopedias, or handbooks

An anthology is a book in which texts by different authors are published. This is usually also the case in encyclopedias and often in handbooks. You should cite the source in the bibliography as follows:

Last Name, First Name (Year): Title of Contribution. In: First Name Last Name (ed.): Title of Anthology (if applicable: Edition, starting page–ending page). Place: Publisher.

Example:

Flemming, Helga von (2017): Altruism. In: Dieter Kreft & Ingrid Mielenz (eds.): Dictionary of Social Work. Tasks, Practice Fields, Concepts, and Methods of Social Work and Social Pedagogy (8th, fully rev. & updated ed., pp. 89–99). Weinheim: Beltz Juventa.

Can I cite newspaper articles?

You should only use newspaper articles as citations if they are truly the best source. A newspaper article that reports scientific findings is not the best source to substantiate those findings.

Last Name, First Name (DD.MM.YYYY): Title. Newspaper (if applicable issue number), page.

Example:

Charisius, Hanno (13.02.2016): The Neanderthal in Us. Süddeutsche Zeitung, p. 35.

If no authors are indicated, the responsible organization takes their place, in this case the newspaper.

Example:

Süddeutsche Zeitung (10.05.2010): Criticism of the survey on tuition fees. www.sueddeutsche.de/karriere/hochschule-kritik-an-umfragezu-studiengebuehren-1.569045 (accessed on 17.05.2016).

Recording journal articles

Unlike essays in collected volumes, for an article published in a journal, the place of publication is not given; only the title of the journal and its respective volume are provided, similar to newspapers.

Last Name, First Name (Year): Title of the article. Journal Name, Volume (Issue number), first page–last page of the article.

Example:

Horkheimer, Max (1937): Traditional and Critical Theory. Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 6 (2), pp. 245–294.

Internet documents in the bibliography

The days when internet sources were considered dubious in academic contexts are over. Internet documents can represent full, credible sources that you may cite.

However, internet sources have particularities that you should consider. They are unstable: they can be deleted, changed, or moved.

Therefore, it is important to provide the available information and the date of access.

Last Name, First Name (DD.MM.YYYY): Title. URL (accessed on DD.MM.YYYY).

Sometimes important details are missing – provide what information is available and make transparent what is missing. For more information see the article Citing online documents. Since theoretically anything can be published on the internet, it is especially important to rely on reliable, authoritative sources. See also the article Citing credible sources.

Unusual online sources, such as videos, podcasts, blogs, or forum posts, should be clearly indicated as such.

Examples:

Knigge, Almut (17.11.2014): Resocialization. What matters after release from prison. www.deutschlandfunk.de/resozialisierung-worauf-es-nach-der-entlassung-aus-dem.724.de.html?dram:article_id=303487 (accessed on 02.07.2018).

Keady, Jim (15.07.2016): My personal experience with black lives not mattering [Blog]. www.huffingtonpost.com/jim-keady/my-personal-experience-wi_b_10955370.html?utm_hp_ref=politics (accessed on 14.07.2018).

explainity (11.08.2011): Social insurance explained simply (explainity explanatory video) [Video]. www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfACZuLfUMA (accessed on 24.09.2018).

Beware of automatic hyphenation! This can distort links!

Recording lectures

Both published and unpublished lectures are recorded as follows:

Last name, First name (Date of lecture): Title. [Lecture]. Name of conference or lecture series or organizer, Place.

Examples:

Maly, Ulrich (10.12.2015): What holds the urban immigration society together? [Lecture]. Lecture series „Immigration society Germany – Questions and discourses“ of the Faculty of Social Sciences. Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm.

Coelen, Thomas (09.04.2014): Want, may, should, must children and adolescents participate? [Lecture]. Specialist conference „Networks of Cooperation“ of the Landschaftsverband Rheinland, Cologne.

Films and audio documents

Similar to online sources, you indicate the exact type of source as follows:

Last name, First name (Responsibility) (Year): Title. [Source type]. URL (retrieved on DD.MM.YYYY). Place: Production company.

Examples:

Lau, Frederick & Gansel, Dennis (Director) (2008): The Wave. [Film]. Munich: Constantin Film.

Fettes Brot (2005): Built on Water. [Vinyl LP]. Barmstedt: Fettes Brot Records.

Recording contributions in series of publications

Your source may have appeared in a series of publications. Series of publications allow publishers or editors to establish a thematic connection between different books. For example, the board of the German Society for Social Work (DGSA) publishes the series „Theory, Research and Practice of Social Work“. You do not need to list the series in the bibliography unless it significantly contributes to the professional classification of the publication. In that case, indicate it as follows:

Last name, First name (Year): Title (Series title, Vol. Volume number). Place: Publisher.

Examples:

Stövesand, Sabine; Stoik, Christoph & Troxler, Ueli (Eds.): Handbook Community Work. Traditions and positions, concepts and methods. Germany – Switzerland – Austria (Theory, Research and Practice of Social Work, Vol. 4). Opladen et al.: Barbara Budrich.

Knop, Karin; Hefner, Dorothée; Schmitt, Stefanie & Vorderer, Peter (2015): Mobile mediatization. Mobile phone and mobile Internet use by children and adolescents – Summary (Media Research Series of the Landesanstalt für Medien Nordrhein-Westfalen, Vol. 77). Leipzig: VISTAS.

What is grey literature?

You can also cite so-called grey literature. These are works that are not distributed via bookstores, such as e.g. informational brochures from social institutions and ministries. Depending on the type of text the sources belong to, you cite them e.g. as an Internet source, a monograph, or if applicable as a chapter in a collected volume.

If you want to cite e.g. the industry report of the Industrial Union of Mining, Energy and Chemicals: This can be obtained as a print version or an online version. You cite the source in the format in which it is available.

Examples:

Industrial Union of Mining, Energy, Chemicals [IG BCE] (2015). Industry 4.0 on the Rise. IG BCE: Hannover.

Industrial Union of Mining, Energy, Chemicals [IG BCE] (2015). Industry 4.0 on the Rise. www.igbce.de/vanity/renderDownloadLink/8204/113914 (accessed on 19.02.2018).

Further information

How to list other text types in your bibliography can be found in the manuscript guidelines of the German Psychological Society.

You can find the Zotero style “Faculty SW” on the library website under literature search by faculties.

This citation style is intended to make it easier to create standard-compliant references. A check of all in-text citations and the bibliography is still essential, even if using Zotero or other reference management software.

Typical mistakes

• The paper mentions sources that are not listed in the bibliography.
• The bibliography contains sources that are not cited in the paper.
• The information is incomplete.
• The formatting is inconsistent.
• The bibliography separates sources by type, e.g., “Books” and “Websites.”

How it’s done

• For chapters in collected volumes, always give the title of the chapter with authors as well as the title of the whole work with editors. Include the complete page numbers of the chapter. Only then can readers identify exactly which article or chapter you are citing.
• Entries in the bibliography end with a period.
• Publisher names are listed without the legal form (e.g., GmbH, OHG) or the word “Verlag”, meaning “Publisher”, unless “Verlag” is part of the publisher’s name (e.g., VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften).
• Maintain the order of authors as given in the source. This order is deliberate.

The bibliography is a mandatory part of the structure of a scientific paper.

Frequently asked questions

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Citable sources

For sources to be considered citable in academic work, they must meet the following criteria:

• They were written by authors who themselves work scientifically.
• They are up to date – this does not mean “new”, but “relevant today”.
• They are relevant to the topic.

In relevant and discipline-specific reference works, the state of research is usually well summarized, and the most important literature is listed. You can use these for further research, e.g., in library catalogs.

Reference works do not include common dictionaries or Stangl’s worksheets, but they do include, e.g., the Handbook of Social Work or the Dictionary of Adult Education.

Follow the library’s tips in the article Effective research: Tips and tools for getting started.

Research on the internet

Sometimes online searches provide the first access to a topic. However, a simple Google search does not replace systematic research for suitable academic literature.

You must research suitable academic literature independently, as the literature you use is, among others, a criterion for evaluating your work.

Wikipedia is not considered a citable source in the Faculty of SW or in other faculties, because the authors’ identity is not transparent and the content is not systematically reviewed.

Newspaper reports are also generally not citable, unless they are the only available source. If you want to, e.g., address public discourse about the “No-Pegida” demonstrations in Nuremberg, or quote from a Spiegel interview with Angela Merkel, use the respective magazine or newspaper as the source.

Other academic papers

Academic papers as well as bachelor’s and master’s theses are usually not citable, because you normally cannot verify whether the authors follow academic standards.

Student papers are rarely the best source – unless they contain original data and results that are not available elsewhere.

If you want to use such a paper in an exceptional case, check whether it is an excellent academic work that is publicly accessible. Of course, some information from student papers can serve as a basis for your further research, such as e.g., references.

Frequently asked questions

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Why create a map of a text?

This method is helpful when the academic language of a text is difficult to understand and its structure is hard to recognize.

Especially with such texts, many people find it challenging to take a step back and express the content in their own words – that is, to paraphrase – or to connect the insights gained with their own knowledge.

Creating a map of a text allows for in-depth engagement with the source.

How it’s done

• Skim a text or a text section (5 min.).
• Write down 2–3 questions and think about what you want to know from the text (5 min.).
• Read the section again – this time carefully – and take notes or highlight keywords (10 min.).
• Write down all words and terms you don’t know, but which are important to understand the text. Look up unfamiliar terms.
• In the map, relate individual terms, theses, arguments, or points of criticism to each other. This representation can be expanded with your own positions as well as with the terms and arguments of other researchers (10 min.).

You can reconstruct the text as a kind of mind map, but also as a map or a building.

Working with the map

Answer the following questions – preferably in writing:

• Does one aspect seem particularly central?
• What is connected to what? And why?
• Are there links to other texts, researchers, or theses?
• What do you still not understand?
• What do certain notes, paths, or boundaries mean?

You can also use a shortened version of this method: Maybe the argumentation is logically understandable, but you find it difficult to integrate it into your text without staying too close to the original.

In that case, it makes sense to use only a few elements from the “map” method. For example, you can note down keywords during the first reading, then close the book and write your own text based on your notes.

Literature: Grieshammer, Ella; Liebetanz, Franziska (2013): Zukunftsmodell Schreibberatung: Eine Anleitung zur Begleitung von Schreibenden im Studium. Hohengehren: Schneider.

Frequently asked questions

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What can I use this exercise for?

Two essential steps in academic work are reading academic literature and extracting the main ideas. This method makes it easier for you to grasp the key points of a text, approach a text that is difficult to understand, or move away from the exact wording of the original text when paraphrasing.

In addition, this technique encourages you to take a critical and questioning approach to your reading.

How it’s done

For this reading and writing technique you will need:

• The text to be read
• Reference books, dictionaries, a computer with internet access
• Several sheets of paper,
• Pens
• Approx. 45 minutes time.

Literature (in German): Grieshammer, Ella; Liebetanz, Franziska (2013): Zukunftsmodell Schreibberatung: Eine Anleitung zur Begleitung von Schreibenden im Studium. Hohengehren: Schneider.

Frequently asked questions

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