Definition

Plagiarism refers to the use of texts, ideas, or research results without proper citation. It is considered plagiarism if you incorporate a thought or idea (content plagiarism) or even exact wording (verbatim plagiarism) in an academic text without citing the authors (Commission “Selbstkontrolle in der Wissenschaft” of the University of Bayreuth, 2011, p. 14).

Consequences of plagiarism

Plagiarism can result in a fail. It does not matter whether the plagiarism was intentional or accidental.

“Always ensure, when using ideas and formulations, that you properly document the source of quotations and distinguish between verbatim and paraphrased content.”

– Ingo Palsherm

Most plagiarism happens unintentionally and unconsciously.

But: “Ignorance is no excuse!” So, work carefully from the very beginning!

See also the article Avoiding Plagiarism When Using AI Writing Tools.

Frequently asked questions

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Empirical statements

An empirical statement is usually based on (external) empirical research. A source reference is absolutely necessary here.

Example: “The suspect rate among 14- to under 18-year-olds decreased from 7.0 % in 2007 to 5.5 % in 2015” (Police Crime Statistics, 2015).

If the empirical statement is based on your own observations or research, a source reference is not required, but you should document the research process to allow assessment of its validity. It is not necessary to refer to sources when mentioning undisputed statements and general knowledge in your field.

However, as soon as you give specific information (such as percentages), you do need to refer to sources.

Analytical statements

When you make analytical statements based on your own reasoning, a source is not required. For example, you can draw the following conclusion if you previously presented refugee numbers with sources:

Example: “The signifcant variation in numbers of refugees with secured residence status in Germany and Hungary show that the two countries pursue different goals in their refugee policies.”

However, if you refer to a hypothesis proposed in literature, you must prove it with a source. This is always necessary when there are multiple, sometimes conflicting positions.

If you refer to the ideas of other authors and draw your own conclusions from them, you must make it clear where your own thoughts begin.

If it is undisputed basic knowledge in the field, a source is not required.

Therefore, the often-given advice in guides is not always correct: “Prove everything that does not come from you”.

Normative statements

With a normative statement, you indicate that a behavior or procedure conforms to or should conform to a generally accepted norm. Note: if this statement represents your own opinion, you must justify it. Your reasons should not be based solely on gut feeling.

Example: “In my view, a humane refugee policy should reconsider the distinction between economic refugees and political refugees, because …”.

You can include such statements in the conclusion when you make your own recommendations for action.

Make sure to clearly separate these from empirical and analytical statements.

Frequently asked questions

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Citable sources

For sources to be considered citable in academic work, they must meet the following criteria:

• They were written by authors who themselves work scientifically.
• They are up to date – this does not mean “new”, but “relevant today”.
• They are relevant to the topic.

In relevant and discipline-specific reference works, the state of research is usually well summarized, and the most important literature is listed. You can use these for further research, e.g., in library catalogs.

Reference works do not include common dictionaries or Stangl’s worksheets, but they do include, e.g., the Handbook of Social Work or the Dictionary of Adult Education.

Follow the library’s tips in the article Effective research: Tips and tools for getting started.

Research on the internet

Sometimes online searches provide the first access to a topic. However, a simple Google search does not replace systematic research for suitable academic literature.

You must research suitable academic literature independently, as the literature you use is, among others, a criterion for evaluating your work.

Wikipedia is not considered a citable source in the Faculty of SW or in other faculties, because the authors’ identity is not transparent and the content is not systematically reviewed.

Newspaper reports are also generally not citable, unless they are the only available source. If you want to, e.g., address public discourse about the “No-Pegida” demonstrations in Nuremberg, or quote from a Spiegel interview with Angela Merkel, use the respective magazine or newspaper as the source.

Other academic papers

Academic papers as well as bachelor’s and master’s theses are usually not citable, because you normally cannot verify whether the authors follow academic standards.

Student papers are rarely the best source – unless they contain original data and results that are not available elsewhere.

If you want to use such a paper in an exceptional case, check whether it is an excellent academic work that is publicly accessible. Of course, some information from student papers can serve as a basis for your further research, such as e.g., references.

Frequently asked questions

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Direct quotations

Direct quotations are enclosed in double quotation marks and must be identical to the original not only in content but also in form (i.e. including spelling and punctuation). Omissions are indicated by three dots in square brackets ([…]). Additions must also be placed in square brackets.

Example of a direct quotation:
“Primary data as the basis for publications […] must be kept for ten years.” [10, p. 21].

Page numbers must always be added for direct quotations.

In engineering and natural sciences, direct quotations are rare, as indirect quotations are mostly used.

Indirect quotations

In indirect (paraphrased) quotations, you adopt ideas from other texts but express them in your own words. In engineering papers, citations are almost exclusively indirect. These quotations are also indicated with a reference.

Example of an indirect quotation:
This principle was already mentioned in 1997 [2].

Example of an indirect quotation with page number:
The German Research Foundation (DFG) recommends storing primary data, which publications are based on, for ten years [10, p. 21].

Page numbers can be added for indirect quotations if necessary. However, if you refer to the core idea or main result of the cited text, page numbers are usually not required. The longer the cited work, the more helpful it may be to include them so readers can find the passage again.

Secondary quotations

In principle: always seek the best source. This is usually the one where the knowledge was first published, first empirically studied, and first summarized. A simple Google search or even using the OPAC is often not enough. Instead, you’ll need broader research and access strategies, e.g.:

• search databases
• browse professional journals
• request interlibrary loans

Sometimes, you may need to obtain the source from a university library in Erlangen or Nuremberg. If you need help with research or obtaining literature, our library will gladly support you.

If your efforts fail (or accessing the literature is unreasonably difficult), you may exceptionally cite second-hand knowledge using the term “quoted in” – abbreviated as “qtd. in”. In this case, you use the quotation from the work you do have. It may look like this:

Example of a secondary quotation:
Thus, “a scientist […] is trained through his work to doubt everything he does and publishes, … especially that which is close to his heart.” ([11], qtd. in [10, p. 40]).

Only use this method as a last resort, since the original context may differ. You must not cite [11] without [10] if you haven’t checked [11] yourself.

Second-hand quotations are only allowed if the original source is inaccessible or unreasonably difficult to obtain. Getting a book via interlibrary loan does not count as unreasonably difficult. Good academic practice includes reading original sources.

Longer indirect quotations

Students are often unsure how to cite the source for a longer paraphrase – for example, when a whole paragraph (with multiple sentences) or an entire section is paraphrased.

In academic practice, entire paragraphs or sections are rarely cited. Usually, professional writers refer to the source where the topic is explained in more detail. In student papers, however, such longer paraphrases are more common to demonstrate understanding by explaining in your own words.

There are different ways to place the in-text reference (the number in square brackets) in such cases:

• At the end of the sentence and before the punctuation if the reference applies to that sentence.
• At the end of the paragraph and after the final punctuation if it applies to the whole paragraph.
• In the section title if the entire section draws from one source (usually not recommended).

Example 1 of a longer indirect quotation:
An electric motor (EM) of an electrically powered vehicle generates the required torque through the force of a magnetic field acting on a current-carrying conductor loop. The generated torque is proportional to the current and magnetic field, which can be produced either by an electromagnet or a permanent magnet. In general, electric drives are classified by current type into direct current and alternating current motors. [1, p. 4-8]

Example 2 of a longer indirect quotation:
The following is a summary of Becker’s model [87], which served as the basis for Experiment A. …

Common mistakes

• Your text consists of a string of paraphrased or direct quotations.
• Quotations are missing references or are incorrectly cited.
• You rely on a single source (perhaps even Wikipedia …) even though the topic is widely discussed within the academic field.

Frequently asked questions

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