Why cite at all?

• To prove facts: You state where your information comes from, ideally tracing it back to the original source. This not only respects copyright but also gives your readers the opportunity to examine methods and details for themselves.

Example: 90 percent of Wikipedia authors are male (Bayer 2013).

• To build on existing knowledge: In academia, you don’t have to reinvent the wheel. You cite to refer to the ideas, theories, and findings of others – allowing you to continue the discourse rather than starting from scratch.

Example: The term “invention” is often equated with the concepts of “discovery” or “creation” (cf. Müller, 1998, p. 13).

• To keep it concise: If something is already written elsewhere, a reference is usually sufficient. In academic writing, it’s common to trust the audience to either accept the claim or check the source themselves.

Example: Outreach services are a traditional methodological approach in social work. For centuries, almoners would visit people experiencing hardship to assess their needs and provide aid. At the same time, they were tasked with monitoring how the poor lived and preventing abuse of the support system (cf. detailed discussion in Sachße/Tennstedt 1980).

Quotes often serve several purposes at once:

Example: With regard to the use of ocean thermal energy for power generation, research on structural pipes between 1970 and 2000 focused on using water as a heat carrier. Heat transfer and resistance coefficients were measured [6–17]. Companies provided additional measurements using water [18, 19]. A few studies also examined gases as heat carriers [11, 20].

What types of quotations are there?

There are two types of quotations: direct and indirect. In both cases, you must always add a reference to show where the quotation comes from.

With direct quotations, you reproduce the original wording exactly. This is marked with quotation marks and a reference.

Example: “One of the main pioneers of this model is Goffman with his concept of stigma or stigmatization” (Metzler, 2011, p. 101).

Use direct quotations sparingly. In the humanities and social sciences, you should cite directly when the wording is particularly striking or original. In the natural and engineering sciences, direct quotations are rarely used.

With indirect quotes, you take ideas, results, etc. from another text but rephrase them in your own words. These also need a reference.

Example: According to Metzler, Goffman – who developed the concept of stigma or stigmatization – is one of the key early figures of symbolic interactionism (2011, p. 101).

How do I cite?

There are many ways to cite in academic writing: footnotes, in-text references with author names and year of publication, numbers, or combinations of numbers and letters in square brackets.

There’s no single “correct” citation style. What matters is that you stay consistent throughout your entire text and don’t mix styles!

How do I know which citation style to use?

• Ask your lecturers – they often have a preferred style you should follow.
• Learn about the conventions in your discipline. See our articles: Citing in the Social Sciences, Citing in Business Studies, Citing in Engineering and Natural Sciences.
• If your lecturers don’t specify a style, you can choose one yourself. It’s best to go with a well-documented style (DIN, Harvard, APA, IEEE etc.).

What is a bibliography?

The bibliography includes all the sources you cited in your text – and only those. As it should allow readers to trace each source, the entries must be detailed enough to locate the exact work if needed.

The bibliography must be complete and consistent.

The format of the bibliography depends on the citation style used. Sources are usually listed alphabetically.

What do I have to cite?

In academic writing, you must mark every idea that is not your own. The only exception is general knowledge within your discipline.

That sounds easier than it is. Especially at the beginning of your studies, it can be difficult to recognize what counts as general knowledge. The good news: it gets easier over time. Until then, these rules of thumb may help:

You don’t necessarily need to cite:

• Things your readers are expected to know.
• What common sense would suggest.
• Content found in general reference works.

You must always cite:

• If an idea or result can be traced back to a specific author or study.
• If the statement is controversial or debatable.
• Any wording you copy exactly.
• If you include data from other research.

Frequently asked questions

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What does research actually mean in this context?

In this context, research aims to gather existing knowledge on a specific topic and integrate it into your own research process. A thorough search allows you to close your own knowledge gaps, identify research gaps, and place your work within the context of existing studies.

To navigate the landscape of information with confidence, it is important to identify and define your own information needs. These are shaped by the aspects of the question you aim to answer.

The definition of your research question in the context of searching literature involves:

• a structured collection of search terms
• and their meaningful combination into search queries.

Next, the goal is to find and gain access to the required information in the form of scientific literature.

A central starting point for this is the library: It provides access to over 200,000 printed books, more than 400,000 e-media resources, and several million academic articles.

What is the OPAC?

The first point of contact in any research process is the library catalogue (OPAC). It contains the library’s entire collection at the title level. This means it provides information about which books, e-books, journals, and newspapers are available through the library.

The OPAC is therefore suitable for searching for foundational literature and for checking whether a specific journal or issue is available.

Why use academic databases?

In the next step, academic databases come into play. They enable targeted searches for individual articles from scientific journals.

An overview of the most relevant databases for each faculty is available on the library website.

The databases differ in topic – ranging from highly specialised subject databases to interdisciplinary databases covering a wide range of topics.

In addition, they differ in terms of availability of the literature they index: Full-text databases provide the entire text for each entry, whereas bibliographic databases only refer to the existence of the article.

Thanks to the internet, it is usually possible to check availability with just a few clicks and, if necessary, place an interlibrary loan request.

You can find a detailed script about searching for literature for your specific degree program in the library’s training materials.

Frequently asked questions

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Citation suggestions for figures

For each variant, it is important that you cite the image source consistently, transparently and as precisely as possible. In some academic disciplines and cultures, it is not customary to mark your own illustrations, but only altered and fully reproduced ones.

For deeper insight and subject-specific use of figures and tables (available via VPN connection):

• Ebster, Claus; Stalzer, Lieselotte (2017): Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftler. Stuttgart, Vienna: UTB GmbH; Facultas (UTB, 2471). See Chapter 7.
• Hirsch-Weber, Andreas et al. (2016): Wissenschaftliches Schreiben und Abschlussarbeit in Natur- und Ingenieurwissenschaften. Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer. See Chapter 5.

Use as image quote

If you use the figure as evidence, explain it and integrate it into your work, then you do not need to ask for permission.

In the following box the decisive sentence is quoted, taken from the article: Copyright and academic research: what are the key issues that affect you as an author?

“[…] quotations are only permissible if they are intended to support an argument. Use of quotations without any commentary, e.g. for illustrative or decorative purposes, is not permitted under the right of quotation and therefore may only be carried out with the consent of the author or copyright owner and payment of remuneration.”

– Source: publisso.de

The function of figures

In academic work, unnecessary illustrations and graphic decoration are out of place.

Use figures – your own and others with source reference – as substantive additions, and refer to your figure in the running text.

The use of figures is also formulated in the so-called Copyright Act. You can find more information in the Act on Copyright and Related Rights (Copyright Act) § 51 Quotations.

Create or reconstruct figures yourself

Lucidchart and Visio are examples of tools you can use to create figures yourself. We compared both and created an evaluation table so that you can choose the right tool for you.

These two articles form the basis of our preliminary evaluation:

Comparison 1: Visio vs Lucidchart Flowchart

Comparison 2: Lucidchart vs Visio: Key Differences

Frequently asked questions

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Using scientific articles

Scientific articles are published in academic journals. Therefore, they have a minimum level of verified quality, e.g. through double peer-review procedures. So-called review articles offer a good introduction and overview of a thesis topic, and original articles present specific research findings on a topic. Scientific articles are particularly suitable for finding and deepening a thesis topic and can among others be researched via the Electronic Journals Database (DBIS). It is worthwhile to ask your supervisors which journals are relevant. Problems in research can be clarified via the thesis consultation of the library.

Structure of the articles

Despite certain conventions in the individual scientific disciplines and detailed requirements from publishers and editors, a basic structure for scientific articles has developed. It includes the following parts:

1. Title
2. Authors, address(es)
3. Paper abstract
4. Keywords
5. Introduction
6. State of research (literature review)
7. Methodological approach (field research)
8. Results and discussion
9. Conclusions/research perspective
10. Acknowledgments
11. References

Examples of academic journals can be found in the Padlet.

Frequently asked questions

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The usual research

While working with sources, you usually need to search databases, browse through journals, or request an interlibrary loan. Sometimes you also need to obtain literature from the university library in Erlangen or Nuremberg. If you need support with literature research or acquisition, our library will gladly assist you.

Also refer to our articles Effective research: Tips and tools for beginners and Starting your research.

Exceptions for citing secondary sources

If your efforts do not succeed, or if obtaining the literature would involve an unreasonable amount of effort, you may exceptionally refer to knowledge gained from secondary sources with the note “quoted in” (abbreviated as “qtd. in”), or “as cited in”. In this case, you take the relevant quotation that you do not have access to from the publication that is available to you. It can look like this:

Example: Solution-oriented short-term therapy is based on the insight that “major therapies without a time limit usually drag on until the patient realizes that the treatment could last a lifetime, and gives it up” (Watzlawick et al., 2001, p. 137, qtd. in Berklin, 2010, p. 56).

In the reference list, only “Berklin, 2010” is included – in other words, only the work you have consulted. Under no circumstances should you quote Watzlawick without mentioning Berklin if you have not personally examined Watzlawick’s work.

You should only use this approach in an emergency, as the quote from the work you have may appear in a completely different context in the original.

Frequently asked questions

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Definition

Plagiarism refers to the use of texts, ideas, or research results without proper citation. It is considered plagiarism if you incorporate a thought or idea (content plagiarism) or even exact wording (verbatim plagiarism) in an academic text without citing the authors (Commission “Selbstkontrolle in der Wissenschaft” of the University of Bayreuth, 2011, p. 14).

Consequences of plagiarism

Plagiarism can result in a fail. It does not matter whether the plagiarism was intentional or accidental.

“Always ensure, when using ideas and formulations, that you properly document the source of quotations and distinguish between verbatim and paraphrased content.”

– Ingo Palsherm

Most plagiarism happens unintentionally and unconsciously.

But: “Ignorance is no excuse!” So, work carefully from the very beginning!

See also the article Avoiding Plagiarism When Using AI Writing Tools.

Frequently asked questions

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Empirical statements

An empirical statement is usually based on (external) empirical research. A source reference is absolutely necessary here.

Example: „The suspect rate among 14- to under 18-year-olds decreased from 7.0 % in 2007 to 5.5 % in 2015“ (Police Crime Statistics, 2015).

If the empirical statement is based on your own observations or research, a source reference is not required, but you should document the research process to allow assessment of its validity. You also do not need sources to mention undisputed statements and general knowledge in your field.

However, as soon as you give specific information, you need sources, like for percentages.

Analytical statements

When you make analytical statements based on your own reasoning, a source is not required. For example, you can draw the following conclusion if you previously presented refugee numbers with sources:

Example: „The strongly differing numbers of refugees with secured residence status in Germany and Hungary show that the two countries pursue different goals in their refugee policies.“

However, if you refer to a thesis in the literature, you must prove it with a source. This is always necessary when there are multiple, sometimes conflicting positions.

If you refer to the ideas of other authors and draw your own conclusions from them, you must make it clear where your own thought begins.

If it is undisputed basic knowledge in the field, a source is not required.

Therefore, the often-given advice in guides is not always correct: „Prove everything that does not come from you“.

Normative statements

With a normative statement, you indicate that a behavior or procedure conforms to or should conform to a generally accepted norm. Note: if this statement represents your own opinion, you must justify it. Your reasons should not be based solely on gut feeling.

Example: „In my view, a humane refugee policy should reconsider the distinction between economic refugees and political refugees, because …“.

You can include such statements in the conclusion when you make your own recommendations for action.

Make sure to clearly separate these from empirical and analytical statements.

Frequently asked questions

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How did the observations and experiences arise?

Are the observations random, or were they made in a purposeful, methodically controlled, and systematical way? Ideally, you will have documented your observations and reflected on your experiences in writing. Including these written records, for instance in the appendix, helps the reader understand why you have reached these conclusions.

It is important that you always cite the source of the information here as well.

In observations or experiences, you alone are the source of the information.

If, for example, you refer to files or internal concepts and work aids from the institution in field reports, you must also clearly indicate your sources. Make your sources explicit with wording such as “I observed …”, “This information comes from the case file …”.

How do I integrate observations and experiences?

You can use observations and experiences e.g. to illustrate. In this case, it is often sufficient to present only the relevant content – without background information and possibly even without providing written proof. Alternatively, you can use your own experiences to develop a question or thesis.

Make sure not to make impermissible generalizations that distort the findings.

Your own observations and experiences are always subjective and therefore limited in their validity, because you observe only parts of individual cases, which makes generalization extremely difficult.

Not like this: In practice, clients regularly arrive late for consultation appointments.

Better like this: In my experience, clients frequently arrived late for consultation appointments.

Never leave your reports or observations uncommented, but explain what they represent. Your own interpretation does not automatically arise from the presentation of your experience.

As always: discuss questions and details with your lecturers.

An example of the relevance of own observations

Frequently asked questions

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Citable sources

Citable are all sources that are permanently and publicly accessible.

Lecture notes are generally not considered scientific publications, as they are not publicly accessible. They are therefore not citable. The same applies to internal documents from companies that are subject to confidentiality.

Worth citing

Not worth citing are therefore daily newspapers and tabloid magazines, user manuals, operating instructions, company brochures, any other internal company documents, as well as conversations.

Academic journals generally represent an excellent source worth citing, as they present and discuss the current state of research.

Sources that are not worth citing may not be used as evidence for a fact or to justify a course of action. A citation based on such a source is therefore inadmissible.

In some cases, however, using a source that is not worth citing can be helpful to illustrate something (e.g. images from the internet) or unavoidable to explain a technical background (e.g. manuals).

Even the use of such sources must be correctly identified and listed in the bibliography.

In these cases, always create a PDF document for each of these sources (scan or print as PDF) and submit these documents on the digital storage medium when handing in your thesis in a dedicated folder. This also applies to user manuals or similar documents. You should copy these in full to the CD.

Some faculty members of the EFI faculty insist on this type of documentation for all non-citable sources.

Frequently asked questions

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What are preprints?

Before a scientific publication is released, it has to go through multiple rounds of revision and review. This process can take months or even years. However, to make the research findings available to the academic community during this phase, preprints are published.

Preprints are preliminary versions of scientific publications made accessible to the public before official publication. Usually, these versions have not yet undergone peer review. Therefore, they should only be cited in exceptional cases.

Can I cite preprints?

Preprints should only be cited in exceptional cases, since the findings and data in the publication have not yet gone through the peer review process – meaning they have not been evaluated by other researchers. It is always recommended to look for and cite the best possible source: peer-reviewed publications such as articles in scientific journals or books published by academic publishers, e.g., monographs or chapters in edited volumes.

Exception: If a research project is very recent – not older than one or two years – it may make sense to cite the preprint. Preprints should therefore only be cited if there is no newer, peer-reviewed publication available. Make sure to conduct a thorough search in the OPAC, in the publication lists of the main authors, and in relevant library databases to fulfill your academic duty of care.

How do I cite preprints?

Even though a preprint is not an officially published version of a scientific text, any quotes from it must be clearly marked – just like with any other scientific source.

Suggested citation:
[1] M. R. Douglas. “Large Language Models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.05782, 2023. [Online] Available at https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.05782, last checked on 23.04.2025.

It is important to indicate that the source is a preprint. Always use the citation style you have chosen for your own academic work consistently.

Literature: OA; Open Access (2022): What are Preprints? Available online at https://open-access.network/informieren/publizieren/preprints, last checked on 23.04.2025.

Frequently asked questions

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