Why cite at all?

• To prove facts: You state where your information comes from, ideally tracing it back to the original source. This not only respects copyright but also gives your readers the opportunity to examine methods and details for themselves.

Example: 90 percent of Wikipedia authors are male (Bayer 2013).

• To build on existing knowledge: In academia, you don’t have to reinvent the wheel. You cite to refer to the ideas, theories, and findings of others – allowing you to continue the discourse rather than starting from scratch.

Example: The term “invention” is often equated with the concepts of “discovery” or “creation” (cf. Müller, 1998, p. 13).

• To keep it concise: If something is already written elsewhere, a reference is usually sufficient. In academic writing, it’s common to trust the audience to either accept the claim or check the source themselves.

Example: Outreach services are a traditional methodological approach in social work. For centuries, almoners would visit people experiencing hardship to assess their needs and provide aid. At the same time, they were tasked with monitoring how the poor lived and preventing abuse of the support system (cf. detailed discussion in Sachße/Tennstedt 1980).

Quotes often serve several purposes at once:

Example: With regard to the use of ocean thermal energy for power generation, research on structural pipes between 1970 and 2000 focused on using water as a heat carrier. Heat transfer and resistance coefficients were measured [6–17]. Companies provided additional measurements using water [18, 19]. A few studies also examined gases as heat carriers [11, 20].

What types of quotations are there?

There are two types of quotations: direct and indirect. In both cases, you must always add a reference to show where the quotation comes from.

With direct quotations, you reproduce the original wording exactly. This is marked with quotation marks and a reference.

Example: “One of the main pioneers of this model is Goffman with his concept of stigma or stigmatization” (Metzler, 2011, p. 101).

Use direct quotations sparingly. In the humanities and social sciences, you should cite directly when the wording is particularly striking or original. In the natural and engineering sciences, direct quotations are rarely used.

With indirect quotes, you take ideas, results, etc. from another text but rephrase them in your own words. These also need a reference.

Example: According to Metzler, Goffman – who developed the concept of stigma or stigmatization – is one of the key early figures of symbolic interactionism (2011, p. 101).

How do I cite?

There are many ways to cite in academic writing: footnotes, in-text references with author names and year of publication, numbers, or combinations of numbers and letters in square brackets.

There’s no single “correct” citation style. What matters is that you stay consistent throughout your entire text and don’t mix styles!

How do I know which citation style to use?

• Ask your lecturers – they often have a preferred style you should follow.
• Learn about the conventions in your discipline. See our articles: Citing in the Social Sciences, Citing in Business Studies, Citing in Engineering and Natural Sciences.
• If your lecturers don’t specify a style, you can choose one yourself. It’s best to go with a well-documented style (DIN, Harvard, APA, IEEE etc.).

What is a bibliography?

The bibliography includes all the sources you cited in your text – and only those. As it should allow readers to trace each source, the entries must be detailed enough to locate the exact work if needed.

The bibliography must be complete and consistent.

The format of the bibliography depends on the citation style used. Sources are usually listed alphabetically.

What do I have to cite?

In academic writing, you must mark every idea that is not your own. The only exception is general knowledge within your discipline.

That sounds easier than it is. Especially at the beginning of your studies, it can be difficult to recognize what counts as general knowledge. The good news: it gets easier over time. Until then, these rules of thumb may help:

You don’t necessarily need to cite:

• Things your readers are expected to know.
• What common sense would suggest.
• Content found in general reference works.

You must always cite:

• If an idea or result can be traced back to a specific author or study.
• If the statement is controversial or debatable.
• Any wording you copy exactly.
• If you include data from other research.

Frequently asked questions

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Literature recommendations

Questions

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Initial situation

A consistent format is particularly important to avoid misunderstandings and to ensure the traceability of calculations and experiments.

Modern software tools and mathematical editors support the creation and presentation of formulas and equations in professional quality.

A reference for meaningful formatting of formula symbols is provided by the standard DIN EN ISO 80000-1. This article follows this standard.

Specifying a quantity

A quantity is given as the product of a numerical value and a unit, and always has a clear and unique symbol.

For example, the volume can be specified according to Equation 1:

Here, V is the symbol for the quantity “volume”, cm³ is the unit of the volume, and 3.254 is the numerical value of the volume.

A space must be placed between the numerical value and the unit.

In general, any quantity Q can be expressed as the product of the numerical value of the quantity {Q} and the unit of the quantity [Q].

If only the numerical value of a quantity is needed – for example, to specify it in a chart or in the column heading of a table – the quantity must be divided by its unit, as shown in Equation 2:

So-called dimensionless quantities have the dimension number with unit [Q] = 1.

Use of quantities in mathematical functions

Mathematical functions are defined only for numerical values or for quantities of the dimension number. Therefore, using a quantity with a different dimension as the argument of a mathematical function is not meaningful.

Quantities with dimensions must therefore first be made dimensionless.

This can be done by specifying the unit or by using a standard quantity.

Examples of meaningful use of quantities in mathematical functions are shown in Equation 3:

Formula symbols for quantities

As a rule, formula symbols consist of letters from the Latin, Greek, or occasionally the Hebrew alphabet.

Formula symbols are always written in italics.

If formula symbols have indices, the formatting of the indices depends on their respective meanings.

• An index that represents another quantity or variable is written in italics, like the formula symbol.
• An index that represents a word, an abbreviation of a word, or a fixed number is written in upright type.

Equations 4 and 5 illustrate this for indices that must be italicized or upright, respectively:

Notation of unit symbols

Unit symbols are always represented by unchanged, upright letters.

Note that lowercase letters must be used for unit symbols (s, mol, m etc.).

An exception applies only to unit symbols derived from personal names (V based on Alessandro Volta, N based on Isaac Newton, °C based on Anders Celsius etc.).

Additions or modifications to unit symbols are not permitted.

A valid notation for the mass fraction of component A is, for example: w_A = 23.15 %

In contrast, notations such as 23.15 wt. %, 23.15 m% or 23.15 %(m/m) are not permitted.

Compound unit symbols represent a multiplicative connection of individual unit symbols, which must be separated by a space.

Reciprocal units are expressed using powers, e.g.: m s^-1 or J mol^-1, K^-1.

Notation of chemical elements and compounds

Symbols of chemical elements must be written in normal, upright typeface.

Inserting formula symbols and equations in Word

Formulas and formula symbols can be inserted in Word using the Equation Editor: Tab – Insert, Group – Symbols, Command – Equation.

When using both an equation and equation numbering on the same line, make sure that Word does not interpret the equation as text.

If interpreted as text, this results in font size adjustments, especially for fractions, as shown in Equation 6:

You can avoid this automatic font size adjustment by inserting the equation into a table. In this case, the equation and the numbering must be in different cells, as shown in Equation 7:

The table borders must be hidden.

For complex formulas, using MathType is also recommended, as it offers a wide range of tools for precise and professional presentation of mathematical expressions.

However, using MathType is complex and time-consuming. In addition, compatibility, export, or printing issues may occasionally occur with formulas created in MathType.

Therefore, for complex mathematical content, the scientific typesetting system LATEX is recommended, as it offers significant advantages over e.g. Microsoft Word – especially due to its powerful features and ability to create consistent, high-quality documents.

LATEX also offers the advantage of platform independence and is supported by a large, active community, which facilitates problem-solving and ensures long-term availability.

Frequently asked questions

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Initial situation

As a rule, charts created by default in Excel are not immediately usable and require revision.

Figure 1 shows an example of an automatically generated Excel chart with three datasets, based on the publicly available “Iris flower data set”. This dataset is often used as an example for discriminant analyses and as a test dataset for various statistical classification methods.

Adjusting charts

The following section explains general aspects for a successful presentation of Excel charts. Depending on the application area and research question, however, deviations from these may also be appropriate.

It is therefore important to consider the specific requirements and objectives of each analysis and to make corresponding adjustments where necessary.

As a rule, the aspects mentioned correspond to the requirements of Physical Chemistry at Nuremberg Institute of Technology.

Data points should be displayed as points, while calculated or fitted curves should be shown as lines.

An exception are spectra, which should always be displayed as lines.

First, remove the chart title, the gridlines, and the border around the chart.

Make sure that the tick marks for both the major and minor types are displayed outside the axes.

For improved readability and better contrast, always use black text color for axis labels and black axes.

Avoid using Excel’s default pastel tones for individual graphs. Instead, use bold and not too bright colors.

Examples of suitable colors and their corresponding RGB values are listed in Table 1:

When formatting the numerical values on the axes, ensure an appropriate number of decimal places and avoid unnecessary zeros.

Make sure that all numbers have the same number of decimal places. Always ensure an appropriate font size corresponding to the purpose of the chart.

For integration into text documents, the font size should match that of the body text. For presentations, a font size of at least 16 pt is recommended.

When labeling axes, follow the DIN EN ISO 80000-1, Chapter 7.

• Axis titles may be bold, but this is not mandatory.
• Ensure that the two axes always intersect at the bottom left of the chart.
• Always use an appropriate font size that suits the purpose of the chart.

For integration into text documents, the font size should match that of the body text. For presentations, a font size of at least 18 pt is recommended.

Insert legend

If you display more than one dataset in the chart, it is important to insert a legend to identify and distinguish the different data series clearly.

The legend can be optionally enclosed by a border to visually separate it from the rest of the chart.

Fitting functions

Always display fitting functions such as a linear trendline as a line in the chart. If possible, include the fitting function and the coefficient of determination directly in the chart.

If you need the parameters of a linear fit of the form y = mx + b, in other words the slope m and the intercept b of your experimental data, it is important not to use the values displayed from the chart’s linear trendline.

Instead, calculate them dynamically in the Excel worksheet, for example using the Excel functions =SLOPE(…) and =INTERCEPT(…).

This ensures that your further calculations are based on current, dynamically calculated values and that no rounding errors occur.

Result

Figure 2 shows the optimized version of the chart:

Frequently asked questions

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Zotero offers numerous advantages for managing literature and knowledge:

A detailed guide to managing literature with Zotero can be found in the training materials from the library.

For Ohm staff, the texts are available in full text via VPN.

To access the OPAC, you need to be on the university network or – if you are off-campus – establish a VPN connection.

Frequently Asked Questions

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What does research actually mean in this context?

In this context, research aims to gather existing knowledge on a specific topic and integrate it into your own research process. A thorough search allows you to close your own knowledge gaps, identify research gaps, and place your work within the context of existing studies.

To navigate the landscape of information with confidence, it is important to identify and define your own information needs. These are shaped by the aspects of the question you aim to answer.

The definition of your research question in the context of searching literature involves:

• a structured collection of search terms
• and their meaningful combination into search queries.

Next, the goal is to find and gain access to the required information in the form of scientific literature.

A central starting point for this is the library: It provides access to over 200,000 printed books, more than 400,000 e-media resources, and several million academic articles.

What is the OPAC?

The first point of contact in any research process is the library catalogue (OPAC). It contains the library’s entire collection at the title level. This means it provides information about which books, e-books, journals, and newspapers are available through the library.

The OPAC is therefore suitable for searching for foundational literature and for checking whether a specific journal or issue is available.

Why use academic databases?

In the next step, academic databases come into play. They enable targeted searches for individual articles from scientific journals.

An overview of the most relevant databases for each faculty is available on the library website.

The databases differ in topic – ranging from highly specialised subject databases to interdisciplinary databases covering a wide range of topics.

In addition, they differ in terms of availability of the literature they index: Full-text databases provide the entire text for each entry, whereas bibliographic databases only refer to the existence of the article.

Thanks to the internet, it is usually possible to check availability with just a few clicks and, if necessary, place an interlibrary loan request.

You can find a detailed script about searching for literature for your specific degree program in the library’s training materials.

Frequently asked questions

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Citation suggestions for figures

For each variant, it is important that you cite the image source consistently, transparently and as precisely as possible. In some academic disciplines and cultures, it is not customary to mark your own illustrations, but only altered and fully reproduced ones.

For deeper insight and subject-specific use of figures and tables (available via VPN connection):

• Ebster, Claus; Stalzer, Lieselotte (2017): Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftler. Stuttgart, Vienna: UTB GmbH; Facultas (UTB, 2471). See Chapter 7.
• Hirsch-Weber, Andreas et al. (2016): Wissenschaftliches Schreiben und Abschlussarbeit in Natur- und Ingenieurwissenschaften. Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer. See Chapter 5.

Use as image quote

If you use the figure as evidence, explain it and integrate it into your work, then you do not need to ask for permission.

In the following box the decisive sentence is quoted, taken from the article: Copyright and academic research: what are the key issues that affect you as an author?

“[…] quotations are only permissible if they are intended to support an argument. Use of quotations without any commentary, e.g. for illustrative or decorative purposes, is not permitted under the right of quotation and therefore may only be carried out with the consent of the author or copyright owner and payment of remuneration.”

– Source: publisso.de

The function of figures

In academic work, unnecessary illustrations and graphic decoration are out of place.

Use figures – your own and others with source reference – as substantive additions, and refer to your figure in the running text.

The use of figures is also formulated in the so-called Copyright Act. You can find more information in the Act on Copyright and Related Rights (Copyright Act) § 51 Quotations.

Create or reconstruct figures yourself

Lucidchart and Visio are examples of tools you can use to create figures yourself. We compared both and created an evaluation table so that you can choose the right tool for you.

These two articles form the basis of our preliminary evaluation:

Comparison 1: Visio vs Lucidchart Flowchart

Comparison 2: Lucidchart vs Visio: Key Differences

Frequently asked questions

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With the statutory declaration in accordance with the APO/RaPO you confirm that you wrote the thesis independently and that you have not previously submitted it elsewhere for examination purposes. In addition, you guarantee that you used no sources or aids other than those stated, and that you marked verbatim and paraphrased quotations as such.

You must mark the statutory declaration in accordance with the APO/RaPO with the current date and sign it.

It is legally required under examination regulations for all theses and is even requested by some instructors for term papers.

The statutory declaration in accordance with the APO/RaPO is a mandatory part of The Structure of a Thesis in Engineering and Natural Sciences.

Frequently Asked Questions

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What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism means the adoption of texts, ideas or research results without proper citation.

Whether intentional or unintentional: in academia, plagiarism contradicts the principles of scholarly work. Consequences include failed exams, in severe cases even expulsion and failed careers in science and politics.

When must I cite what?

It is not necessary to cite everything that is general knowledge.

Whether you give sources when adopting a structure or an idea depends on what is known as the level of originality:

If you present generally known, undisputed knowledge in your field, usually no citation is required. Sometimes it is hard to determine whether something belongs to this basic knowledge in the field. When in doubt, cite too much rather than too little.

However, if it is an original idea, a specific number, a model or a theory that can be traced back to a person, you must clearly indicate its origin by a citation.

The same applies to adopting a structure. If you take over an innovative outline from academic literature, you can, for example, mention in the introduction that you based your structure on source XY.

If you are unsure: Better to cite too much than too little.

Risks when using AI writing tools

You may have read that generative AI does not produce plagiarism, but unique texts. And that is true – these large language models do not simply copy sentences from their vast training data but generate a new, independent text for each prompt according to statistical principles.

As a rule, AI writing tools therefore do not create literal plagiarism. Nevertheless, AI writing tools generate texts that are partially or entirely based on existing content.

Avoiding plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism when using AI writing tools, you should observe the following strategies:

1. Research carefully:
Science is always based on the prior work of others. It is your academic duty to research thoroughly and take into account what has already been studied on the subject. This also allows you to identify the ideas of others in AI-generated texts.

2. Work independently:
Use AI tools as an aid, not as a substitute for your own thinking and writing. Especially in academic texts, it is often advisable to draft your work yourself and use AI only for revision or supplementation.

3. Provide sources:
Make sure that all information not coming from your own knowledge is correctly cited. Verify content you take from an AI tool like ChatGPT and back it up with sources. To support your literature research, you can also use literature-search AI tools like ConnectedPapers, Consensus, or ResearchRabbit.

4. Reflect on your writing process:
Regularly analyze your writing process and reflect on how and why you use AI tools. This promotes awareness of your own working methods and helps avoid unethical behavior.

5. Use consultations and trainings:
Many universities offer workshops and consultations on avoiding plagiarism. Take advantage of these offers to further develop your skills.

Frequently asked questions

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