General regulations

If you refer to the same source repeatedly, you can abbreviate it from the second short reference onward with “ibid.” (ibidem). This reference always refers to the most recently cited source. Changed page numbers are indicated e.g. as follows: (ibid., p. 44).

Academic titles, honorary titles, or professional titles (such as e.g. Prof. Dr.) are not included in the short reference.

It is not impolite but rather standard practice not to mention authors’ first names in the text. Under no circumstances should forms of address such as “Mr.” or “Ms.” be used.

There are hundreds of different citation styles that vary by discipline, publication, and personal preferences. The following explains the citation style developed specifically for the Faculty of Social Sciences: “Faculty SW”.

This is a citation style that uses short references in the text. It is based on the “Guidelines for Manuscript Preparation” of the German Psychological Society [DGPs] (2007), which largely correspond to the internationally established regulations of the American Psychological Association (APA).

Instead of an in-text short reference, you can alternatively use a short reference in footnotes. Discuss specific questions about using footnotes directly with your supervisors, e.g. regarding the use of long references. Otherwise, the recommendations presented here for short references apply.

If you do not cite a source, it is assumed that the facts or arguments presented in the text are either your own thoughts or undisputed basic knowledge in the field. For example, you do not have to prove that resocialization or experiential education are fields of social work.

Individual authors

The short reference essentially contains three elements: the authors’ last names, the year of publication, and the relevant page numbers. If no page numbers are given in the publication or they are not relevant, indicating the year of publication is sufficient. If the authors are already mentioned in the same sentence, you do not need to repeat them in the short reference.

Examples:

In Thiersch (1986), everyday life is the starting point for his theory of life-world-oriented social work.

Life-world orientation in social work refers to people’s everyday lives (Thiersch, 1986).

Corporate authors

Institutions, organizations, associations, and companies can take the place of authors in source references. These are called corporate authors. If it is common for the institution to use an abbreviation, you may do so. In this case, provide the full name followed by the abbreviation in square brackets on first reference. For subsequent mentions, the abbreviation is sufficient. In the reference list, use the full name.

Examples:

First mention of the corporate author: (Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs [BMAS], 1999)

Subsequent mentions of the corporate author: (BMAS, 1999)

Mention of the corporate author in the reference list: Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs [BMAS] (1999)

Incomplete information

Sometimes the necessary information is incomplete. Especially for online documents, the date, authors, or page numbers may be missing. Naturally, you can only provide what is available. If authors are missing, the responsible organization (association, institution, publisher) replaces the authors. If the year of publication is missing, you can use the abbreviation “n. d.” (not dated) instead of the year to indicate that this information is not available for this source. Often, you can find the missing information in the website’s imprint.

When using online sources, make sure to use sources where the authors are at least identifiable. Sources without identifiable authors or publishers are only suitable in exceptional cases in academic work.

Example:

(Wildwasser Nürnberg e. V., n. d.)

Two authors

Two authors are connected in the text with the word “and”, whereas in parentheses and tables they are connected with the ampersand (&).

Examples:

According to Grimmer and Neukorn, psychotherapy and coaching “can be placed on a continuum with two poles and a boundary and overlap area in the middle” (2010, p. 47).

They consider it more precise to place psychotherapy and coaching “on a continuum with two poles and a boundary and overlap area in the middle” (Grimmer & Neukorn, 2010, p. 47).

More than two authors

For three to six authors, list all names the first time they appear. For subsequent mentions, list only the first author followed by “et al.” (lat. for “et alii”, eng.: “and others”), the year, and the pages.

Examples:

First mention in text: Müller, Meier, Huber, and Schmidt (2001, p. 12)

First mention in parentheses: (Müller, Meier, Huber & Schmidt, 2001, p. 12)

Subsequent mentions: Müller et al. (2001, p. 13) or (Müller et al., 2001, p. 13)

For more than six authors, list only the first author in the short reference, followed by et al., the year, and the pages.

Examples:

Full reference: Huelmann, Thorben; Ferdinand, Hanna; Gebauer, Miriam; McElvany, Nele; Bos, Wilfried; Köller, Olaf & Schöber, Christian (2014): Accuracy of teachers’ judgments regarding students’ self-efficacy beliefs. In: Heinz Günter Holtappels, Ariane Willems, Michael Pfeifer, Wilfried Bos & Nele McElvany (Vol.): Yearbook of School Development, eds. 18. Data, examples, and perspectives (pp. 298–320). Weinheim: Juventa.

Short reference in text: Huelmann et al. (2014) examine the accuracy of teachers’ judgments regarding their students’ self-efficacy beliefs.

Quotes spanning multiple pages

If a direct or indirect quote in the original text spans more than one page, indicate this with “f.” for the next page or “ff.” for several following pages. This is added directly after the page number without a space. Alternatively, you can specify the exact page range. If the relevant passage spans more than three pages, always indicate the first and last page.

Examples:

Each statement contains four aspects: factual content, appeal, self-revelation, and relationship (Schulz von Thun, 1981, p. 25ff.).

The four-phase model of grief according to Kast is presented in the following (1982, pp. 20–27).

Direct quotes

There are two types of quotes: direct (verbatim) and indirect. For both types, always provide a reference indicating the source.

For direct quotes, you reproduce the original text exactly in your writing. This is indicated using quotation marks and a short reference. Use direct quotes sparingly, only when the wording in the source is particularly original or concise.

Example:

“Working with other people’s academic texts is more than just putting quotation marks in the right place” (Pohl, 2007, p. 295).

If the direct quote contains a mistake, indicate it with “[sic!]” (lat.: “thus”) to show the error was in the original.

Example:

“With work 40. [sic!] everything changes: The world of work is transformed by Big Data, Cloud Computing, and robots” (Mustermann, 2017, p. 24).

Omissions and grammatical changes in direct quotes must be marked with […] unless the omission occurs at the very beginning of the quote.

Omissions and additions can make sentences less understandable. Always check carefully whether it is truly necessary and useful to omit or add anything.

Example:

Kohl concludes that “the deliberate intention to ‘cheat’ […] was only [sic!] recognizable in exceptional cases” (2001, p. 168f.).

Long direct quotes are rarely necessary. If used, for quotes longer than 40 words, a special, space-saving format is recommended: Set the quote as a single block with indentation on both sides. Do not italicize, as this reduces readability. Quotation marks may be omitted in block quotes but may also be used.

Ensure that the formatting clearly identifies the text as a direct quote. A short reference after the quote is mandatory. Importantly, integrate the content of the quote into your own text and refer to it.

Indirect quotes

In indirect (paraphrased) quotes, you take ideas from other texts but put them in your own words. Academic works usually contain far more indirect than direct quotes. Indirect quotes must also include a reference.

Example:

Experiences with voluntary self-monitoring show that students generally reject plagiarism, but their texts often still contain citation errors (Kohl, 2001, p. 168f.).

When paraphrasing longer passages, you don’t need to repeat the source constantly. However, it must always be clear whose arguments you are referring to in your academic work.

It’s best to make it clear through your wording that the short reference applies to a longer section.

Example:

The qualitative method of group discussion was developed to capture the dynamic formation of opinions (Lamnek, 2005, p. 103). According to Lamnek, it is characterized by a detailed guide. Questions are prepared in advance and an order is established in which various topics are discussed. I applied this method in a modified form in this bachelor thesis. For example, the group members completed an online survey about their living situation in advance.

In this example, the wording and reference make it clear that the first three sentences reproduce Lamnek’s description, and the fourth sentence begins the author’s own position.

More on longer indirect quotes can be found in this article: Longer indirect quotes in social sciences.

Citing laws

When citing laws or other legal norms for the first time in the text, provide the official title and abbreviation, e.g. “Civil Code (BGB)”. When the same law is mentioned again in the text, the following applies:

• If the law stands alone, without a paragraph or article, write out the full name, e.g.: “Civil Code”.
• If a paragraph or article is cited, after the first full mention, use the short form, e.g.: “§ 1626 BGB”.

When citing the current version of a law, no additional source information is needed – the law does not need to appear in the bibliography. Do not cite the work from which you took the law. For more details, e.g., older versions, see the article Citing laws.

Example:

The definition of “youth” in the Social Code (SGB) is narrowly defined as 14 to 18 years (§7 para. 1 no. 2 SGB VIII). Up to age 27, the term “young adult” applies (§7 para. 1 no. 3 SGB VIII).

Common mistakes

• Your text consists of a string of paraphrased or direct quotes
• Quotes are missing or incorrectly cited
• You rely on a single source (possibly even Wikipedia …) despite a broad academic discourse on the topic

Frequently asked questions

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From topic to research question

The topic is the subject you deal with as part of your academic work. To narrow the topic down so that you can work on it effectively, you need a specific research question that you can answer with and in your work. Your research question therefore focuses on a concrete aspect of the topic. See also the article: Finding, phrasing and narrowing down your topic.

From research question to title

Once you have decided on a research question, you can develop a title. The title should be precise enough for readers to get an idea of what to expect, but general enough to allow you to set content-related priorities. For final papers, the title must be fixed at the time of registration. You must apply to the examination committee in good time if you would like to change your title at all.

By the way: If you are looking for supervisors for your final paper, you can find a list of lecturers’ main topics on the third floor of the BL building, on the south side in front of the elevator. It is also worth browsing the project database of the Faculty of Social Sciences.

Frequently asked questions

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This belongs in the introduction

The introduction should lead to your topic. As a starting point, present the initial situation, for example by naming a current research problem to which your investigations relate, or by giving a specific case study that illustrates a problem. The introduction clarifies the aim of your paper and shows your approach.

Think about why it is relevant for you to address precisely this research question.

An important role is also played by the framework conditions under which your research takes place:

• Which test facilities are available to you?
• When and how can you use certain facilities?
• Special delivery and related waiting times for materials used should also be included in this section.

The introduction can already briefly describe the methodological approach or reconstruct the current state of research. In such a case, it may be advisable to divide the introduction into further sections.

The length of the introduction is usually at least one page. However, it should not be longer than three to four pages. The aim of the introduction is to spark the reader’s interest.

The writing style should be generally understandable, i.e., technical terms should be used sparingly, and mathematical formulas should be (largely) avoided. People who have not studied your field should also be able to understand what you have been working on for half a year after reading the introduction.

Common mistakes in the introduction

Avoid these common mistakes in your introduction:

• The objective of the paper is not mentioned in the introduction.
• The introduction makes it clear that the topic is too broad, without clarifying that only a partial aspect is being addressed.
• The introduction consists of too many elements that do not fit together.
• The introduction contains elements that belong in the main body of the paper. The introduction should only introduce the content that will be discussed in detail in the main body.
• The technical context and the relevance of the question are not evident.
• The introduction only explains the further structure of the paper –  this is already visible in the table of contents.
• The introduction lacks motivation: Why was this paper written with exactly this objective?
• If you wrote your paper in cooperation with a company: The company is presented in too much detail, and the company description reads like an advertisement.

Example of an introduction

The introduction is a mandatory part of The Structure of a Thesis in Engineering and Natural Sciences.

Frequently asked questions

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What belongs in the introduction?

An introduction should answer three main questions:

• What topic does the paper address?
• Which questions will be answered regarding this topic?
• For empirical work: Which method is used to answer these questions?

It is often helpful for readers if you then present the structure of the paper, stating the focus of each chapter.

At this point, offer initial insights into your results instead of merely repeating the table of contents (see example below).

The following questions should be answered in the introduction:

• In which scientific, professional, or societal context does the topic belong?
• Which aspects of the topic are you addressing, and why?
• What significance does working on this topic have for science or practice?
• If relevant for your work: What current event prompted the choice of this topic?
• Which method was chosen to answer the question?
• How is the paper structured? How and according to which criteria are the chapters organized?

The introduction can have a thematic title (see example below) and should not exceed 10–15 percent of the total text.

Common mistakes in the introduction

Avoid these common mistakes in your introduction:

• The aim is not stated in the introduction.
• The introduction gives the impression that the topic is too broad because it is not made clear that only a specific aspect is addressed.
• The introduction consists of too many elements that do not fit together.
• The introduction contains elements that belong in the main body of the paper. The introduction should only present the content that will be developed in the main section.
• The professional context and the relevance of the research question are not evident.
• The introduction only explains the structure of the paper – but readers have already seen this in the table of contents.
• The introduction lacks motivation: Why was this work carried out with this specific aim?
• If you wrote your paper in cooperation with an organization: The organization is described in too much detail, and the description reads like an advertisement.

Example of an introduction

The introduction is a mandatory part of the structure of an academic paper.

Frequently asked questions

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