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Literature recommendations

Questions

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Phases of writing a scientific paper

Writing a scientific paper consists of several phases. However, these steps rarely follow this seemingly ideal order – you may often find yourself working on several stages in parallel and going back over what you have already done. Keep asking for feedback whenever possible and plan for several content revision phases.

Planning

• Find a topic
• Read up on the subject
• Define your research question
• Clarify the requirements
• Determine the research method
• Create a timeline

Structuring

• Conduct systematic research
• Create a preliminary outline
• Get feedback
• Revise the outline

Writing

• Take notes for each point in your outline
• Write a draft version

Revising

• Get feedback
• Revise the content
• Revise the language
• Adapt formatting to requirements
• Have someone proofread your work

Writing often seems like a lonely and overwhelming task – but it doesn’t have to be! A variety of resources can support you during the writing process: fellow students, writing groups, lecturers, the library, the writing center, and many more.

Shaping the revision process

Good texts often differ from bad ones only in how thoroughly they were revised. Plan at least a quarter to half of your available time for revisions.

The drafts of professionals may not look any different from yours – but they revise them more thoroughly and more often.

The Bietschorn model (Ulmi, Bürki, Verhein & Marti, 2014) offers six categories you can use to systematically revise your text:

1. Content: Are the topics, content, and research questions relevant and aligned? Is what you present factually and academically correct and proven by literature or your own research?
2. Thematic development: Is the thematic focus clear and consistent? Is the topic presented in a coherent and structured way? Are titles and headings meaningful and appropriate?
3. Information density and references: Does the assumed level of prior knowledge match the target audience? Are the references to the literature precise? Are assumptions clear and statements marked as such?
4. Reader guidance: Are text-structuring elements such as cross-references or interim summaries used effectively? Are there enough signals to help readers understand how the parts of the text relate to each other? Are terms introduced, defined if necessary, and used consistently?
5. Language: Are the sentences clear, concise, and easy to understand? Is the grammar correct? Is the choice of words appropriate? Have spelling and punctuation been checked and corrected?
6. Genre-specific requirements: Is your own position clearly recognizable? Have formal requirements for structure, length, citation, and references been met? How do you refer to yourself in the text (“I” / impersonal style) – does this match the requirements of the text and the expectations of your lecturers?

Tips for the writing process

Frequently asked questions

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What makes language scientific?

There isn’t the one correct scientific language, but rather a dynamic range of possibilities within a field. However, the language in scientific texts is generally:

• objective
• proven
• neutral
• precise and unambiguous
• short and concise
• formal

Write objectively

Write about content that is relevant to your research question at that point.

For the statement to be made (i.e., “The factors of successful reconciliation on the part of employees”), it is not relevant here whether companies provide teleworking options or similar. This could be addressed in the next or an additional section. The first sentence was deleted because its content is trivial.

Prove everything

Present findings that are verifiable and supported by evidence. Do not make assumptions. Claims must be identified as such.

Name the studies you use so that readers can assess the scientific validity, e.g., sample size, representativeness, and methods. In addition, the sentence is more precise and neutral after rephrasing.

Remain neutral

Avoid judgmental expressions. If you make evaluations, they must occur in an appropriate place and explicitly, e.g., in the conclusion.

“Unfortunately,” “far too high,” and “probably” are both evaluative and vague expressions.

Write precisely and clearly

Avoid long paraphrases if you can express the idea with a technical term. Even if clear language is required, remember: You are writing an academic paper for a specialist audience. Later in your professional practice, you will also write texts intended for experts, such as reports or concepts, which do not need to be understood by every layperson.

However, technical terms should be introduced and defined where necessary, if they are not widely known.

Here, the technical term “full-day school” can be used instead of a lengthy explanation. The different types of full-day schools are not relevant at this point.

Formulate concisely and simple

Academic texts are working documents that should be easy to read and understand. Therefore, formulate as briefly and clearly as possible, and do not hide your statements behind unnecessarily complicated words and phrases.

The example is awkward, redundant, and imprecisely worded. The phrase “as part of” can be omitted without changing the meaning. What is the difference between “diverse” and “very diverse,” or between “major differences” and “differences”? “When you deal with the topic” is an unnecessary filler. The adjective “regional” and the phrase “in federal states and municipalities” say the same thing. The sentence “Therefore, before this topic can be discussed, a definition should first be provided” is unnecessary because the text has already pointed out the inconsistent use of the term. If the definition follows, the sentence can be omitted.

The example contains filler words as well as evaluative and flowery expressions such as “incredibly fascinating,” “high proportion,” “offer hope.” The sentences can be phrased more precisely and concisely.

The sentence uses unnecessarily complicated phrases and sounds artificial.

Express yourself formally

A certain level of formality is expected in academic writing. Therefore, avoid colloquial language, jargon, and promotional language. However, do not use overly formal language either.

The word “dedicated” is used incorrectly in terms of meaning and grammar. It also sounds pretentious.

The phrase “shabby outfits” is colloquial and judgmental.

The phrase “success story” gives the impression of promotional language. The expression “about 70 years ago” is imprecise.

Every text written as part of your studies or your profession should also apply correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar. This is particularly true for academic work. An excessive number of formal errors may lead readers and examiners to doubt your overall diligence – for example, your academic work.

Use the spell check of your word processor, research grammar, and ask fellow students, friends, or writing tutors for feedback. AI writing tools can also help you proofread your texts.

It is normal to become text-blind while writing and repeatedly overlook even obvious mistakes.

Frequently asked questions

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Writing in the first person

Some Social Sciences researchers use the first-person singular, the “I”, as a matter of course. Others tend to prefer impersonal sentence constructions, such as e.g.: “This paper examines the question of whether …”. Some refer to themselves in the third person as “the author” or “the writer.”

What counts as “academic writing” cannot be decreed – by anyone – but is constantly “in flux” and depends on the reference group of colleagues who either accept “such things” or frown upon them.

– Gerhard Riemann

Very personal texts, e.g. in the style of autoethnography, which offer deep insights into one’s own experiences and feelings and may partly confuse or even unsettle readers, would not have been imaginable some time ago in the context of Social Sciences journals.

It depends on the context

It is not only about whether authors use or avoid the word “I”, but also about what and how much they reveal about themselves.

When reconstructing and discussing one’s own field research experiences, it can be particularly important and lead to new insights to describe in personal words what was difficult, required effort, or was experienced as chaotic. And in such cases, it makes more sense to write: “I became nervous and started stuttering when the client pressed further”, instead of “The author of this report showed signs of nervousness and experienced word-finding difficulties when the client asked additional questions.”

It always depends on the context and the purpose pursued with a text: A self-reflective ethnographic report, in which one engages with one’s own experiences and aims to make them transparent, is different from a literature discussion or a research proposal.

The range of academic language

It is important, on the one hand, that students do not freeze in awe before the supposed academic language but form their own impression of the range of Social Sciences texts and the respective linguistic and stylistic means.

There is no single rule for academic language. To avoid being intimidated and disempowered, it helps to read Social Sciences literature yourself rather than relying only on “exam-relevant PowerPoint slides”.

It is also important to clarify with your lecturers how personal or impersonal the texts should be in their view – and that, of course, includes the question of using “I”.

The lecturers at the Faculty of SW have very different academic socializations, and that is a good thing.

Students should never cultivate the false belief that a certain way of writing is not available to them just because they are still students or only aspiring social educators. They can use their minds just as much as lecturers.

– Gerhard Riemann

Frequently asked questions

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