Empirical statements

An empirical statement is usually based on (external) empirical research. A source reference is absolutely necessary here.

Example: “The suspect rate among 14- to under 18-year-olds decreased from 7.0 % in 2007 to 5.5 % in 2015” (Police Crime Statistics, 2015).

If the empirical statement is based on your own observations or research, a source reference is not required, but you should document the research process to allow assessment of its validity. It is not necessary to refer to sources when mentioning undisputed statements and general knowledge in your field.

However, as soon as you give specific information (such as percentages), you do need to refer to sources.

Analytical statements

When you make analytical statements based on your own reasoning, a source is not required. For example, you can draw the following conclusion if you previously presented refugee numbers with sources:

Example: “The signifcant variation in numbers of refugees with secured residence status in Germany and Hungary show that the two countries pursue different goals in their refugee policies.”

However, if you refer to a hypothesis proposed in literature, you must prove it with a source. This is always necessary when there are multiple, sometimes conflicting positions.

If you refer to the ideas of other authors and draw your own conclusions from them, you must make it clear where your own thoughts begin.

If it is undisputed basic knowledge in the field, a source is not required.

Therefore, the often-given advice in guides is not always correct: “Prove everything that does not come from you”.

Normative statements

With a normative statement, you indicate that a behavior or procedure conforms to or should conform to a generally accepted norm. Note: if this statement represents your own opinion, you must justify it. Your reasons should not be based solely on gut feeling.

Example: “In my view, a humane refugee policy should reconsider the distinction between economic refugees and political refugees, because …”.

You can include such statements in the conclusion when you make your own recommendations for action.

Make sure to clearly separate these from empirical and analytical statements.

Frequently asked questions

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This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.