In academic papers, you may—and should—use other authors’ texts as sources. This is a key feature of academic writing, which always builds on existing knowledge. You simply need to make it clear in your text which sources you have used and how. This is done through short in-text references and a bibliography at the end of your paper.
In addition, academic texts are characterized by a clear and often standardized page layout.
The usual research While working with sources, you usually need to search databases, browse through journals, or request an interlibrary loan. Sometimes you also need to obtain literature from the university library in Erlangen or Nuremberg. If you need support with literature research or acquisition, our library will gladly assist you. Also refer to our …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
Info: Here you can find an overview of the overall structure of a paper in the Social Sciences. What do lists of tables or figures look like? The lists contain a chronological compilation of the titles and page numbers of all figures or tables in the text. They are titled “List of Figures” or “Figures” …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in April 2025.
How can I research? Finding suitable literature for your topic depends on the right search in the library catalogs. First, search for authors and keywords you already know in connection with your topic, e.g., from seminars or entries in reference works. There are different catalogs and research options you should become familiar with. The library …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
Citable sources For sources to be considered citable in academic work, they must meet the following criteria: They were written by authors who themselves work scientifically. They are up to date – this does not mean “new”, but “relevant today”. They are relevant to the topic. In relevant and discipline-specific reference works, the state of …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
Without a new, original, research question, a scientific paper is not considered a new work. However, as topics are frequently too extensive to be covered satisfactorily in a term paper, it is usually not a problem to simply develop new research questions on the same topic for another term paper or thesis. Using text blocks …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in December 2024.
How did the observations and experiences arise? Are the observations random, or were they made in a purposeful, methodically controlled, and systematical way? Ideally, you will have documented your observations and reflected on your experiences in writing. Including these written records, for instance in the appendix, helps the reader understand why you have reached these …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
General notes Informal interviews and conversations have low scientific value compared to traditional publication forms (empirical studies, edited volumes), because they are not verifiable. They are therefore not citable as valid evidence and can only serve as an indication. Always search for the best possible source. Transcribed, analyzed interviews, whether conducted by others or by …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in December 2024.
Look for a print shop or copy shop in good time. Pay attention to possible bindings. Clarify the required format and in what form you can bring the file (e.g. USB stick). Find out how long the printing will take and when the print shop is open. Check whether, and if so, how a title …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Captions All figures and tables must be captioned and numbered. As a rule, tables have headings, while figures or diagrams are provided with captions. These captions must be self-explanatory, i.e., each figure must be understandable from its caption without having to read the surrounding text. Reference all figures and tables in the text. Figures and …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Formal criteria Write SI prefixes, quantities, constants etc. in italics, but units not in italics. There must be a (non-breaking) space between number and unit. Smaller calculations may be included in the running text. Larger calculations and formulas that are central to the work are formatted in a separate line: centered or left-aligned. If they …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Formatting Format: DIN A4 Justified text with appropriate hyphenation to avoid oversized word spacing Font and font size: Font family in consultation with the supervisors; recommended is a sans serif font for headings, a serif font for the text, and a monospace font for program code and internet addresses For running text 11 or 12 …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Possible word processing programs You can write your thesis with any word processing program, e.g. Open Office Writer or MS Word. However, with large documents, mathematical formulas, and internal references, these programs reach their limits. As an alternative, LATEX is available, a professional typesetting program that is (not only in many Linux distributions) available free …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Info: Here you will find an overview of the overall structure of a paper in engineering and natural sciences. At the end of the paper you will find the bibliography. Here all (and only) used sources are listed. If you use a numerical citation style, the sources will be listed with their number in the …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in May 2025.
Citavi Citavi is a reference management program, with regular training sessions offered by the TH Nuremberg. Here you store bibliographic information (for books, articles, websites etc.) as well as text and image citations. In Citavi, you can also organize knowledge and plan tasks. Title details and citations are automatically transferred into the word processor, and …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Direct quotations Direct quotations are enclosed in double quotation marks and must be identical to the original not only in content but also in form (i.e. including spelling and punctuation). Omissions are indicated by three dots in square brackets ([…]). Additions must also be placed in square brackets. Example of a direct quotation:“Primary data as …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in December 2024.
Search for the origin of the knowledge and, if possible, quote from the original texts. A distinction is made between sources that are citable and sources that are worth citing. Citable sources Citable are all sources that are permanently and publicly accessible. Lecture notes are generally not considered scientific publications, as they are not publicly …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Evaluating the literature is one of the core competencies of academic work. Therefore, it is not only legitimate to review and cite the relevant literature, but you are explicitly encouraged to do so. You explicitly refer to sources in your text, to support your presentation, to show that you have taken note of the relevant …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Why cite at all? To prove facts: You state where your information comes from, ideally tracing it back to the original source. This not only respects copyright but also gives your readers the opportunity to examine methods and details for themselves. Example: 90 percent of Wikipedia authors are male (Bayer 2013). To build on existing …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Common procedure As a general rule, only publicly accessible sources should be listed in a bibliography. Internal company sources would not usually be included. However, such sources may still be cited. You have several options: You can simply list the sources in the bibliography and add a note in square brackets indicating that the source …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Definition Plagiarism refers to the use of texts, ideas, or research results without proper citation. It is considered plagiarism if you incorporate a thought or idea (content plagiarism) or even exact wording (verbatim plagiarism) in an academic text without citing the authors (Commission “Selbstkontrolle in der Wissenschaft” of the University of Bayreuth, 2011, p. 14). …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
Citation suggestions for figures Examples: Fig. 1: Inclusion model according to Müller; taken from: Müller, 2020, p. 5. Fig. 2: Overview of constructivist learning theories; following: Johnson, 1999, p. 20. Fig. 3: Coding of the interviews by frequency; own illustration. For each variant, it is important that you cite the image source consistently, transparently and …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Using scientific articles Scientific articles are published in academic journals. Therefore, they have a minimum level of verified quality, e.g. through double peer-review procedures. So-called review articles offer a good introduction and overview of a thesis topic, and original articles present specific research findings on a topic. Scientific articles are particularly suitable for finding and …
This article was published in September 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Citing sources You must cite all sources and tools you used in your work, such as publications, textbooks, software, etc. This also applies to translation tools or ChatGPT. In principle, only sources that can be read and verified by others should be cited. You can cite either verbatim (direct quotation) or paraphrased in your own …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Designing the layout The layout – in other words the page design of your paper – should be clear and functional. Font and font size: Use a simple font, e.g. Times New Roman or Arial. Captions: All tables, equations, figures, and schemes must be numbered in the order in which they are mentioned in the …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Initial situation As a rule, charts created by default in Excel are not immediately usable and require revision. Figure 1 shows an example of an automatically generated Excel chart with three datasets, based on the publicly available “Iris flower data set”. This dataset is often used as an example for discriminant analyses and as a …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in February 2025.
Initial situation A consistent format is particularly important to avoid misunderstandings and to ensure the traceability of calculations and experiments. Modern software tools and mathematical editors support the creation and presentation of formulas and equations in professional quality. A reference for meaningful formatting of formula symbols is provided by the standard DIN EN ISO 80000-1. …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in February 2025.
Title page Make sure that all essential information is included on your title page: Topic of the thesis Thesis / Master Thesis / Project Report for the degree Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) or Master of Science (M.Sc.) By Jane Doe Supervisor: Prof.
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in February 2025.
The final thesis is the culmination of your studies. With it, you prove that you can independently apply the knowledge and skills acquired during your studies to a complex task. – Prof. Dr. Dirk Sachsenheimer Topic and supervisors The examination board of the Faculty of Applied Chemistry appoints examiners or equivalent persons as supervisors. They …
This article was published in October 2025 and last updated in February 2025.
Basics The examples are to be understood as suggestions. Depending on the faculty and professors, formal requirements may vary. Develop your own transparent, consistent and comprehensible system for referring to conducted interviews. Explain your chosen system in your thesis, e.g. in the methodology section or at the beginning of the results. How exactly you indicate …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
What are preprints? Before a scientific publication is released, it has to go through multiple rounds of revision and review. This process can take months or even years. However, to make the research findings available to the academic community during this phase, preprints are published. Preprints are preliminary versions of scientific publications made accessible to …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in May 2025.
General regulations If you refer to the same source repeatedly, you can abbreviate it from the second short reference onward with “ibid.” (ibidem). This reference always refers to the most recently cited source. Changed page numbers are indicated e.g. as follows: (ibid., p. 44). Academic titles, honorary titles, or professional titles (such as e.g. Prof. …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in December 2024.
General regulations Basically, when you quote indirectly, the extent of the quote must be clearly indicated – that is, it must be clear where the quote begins and ends. It is usually not sufficient to simply list the source at the end of a paragraph or chapter. If you do not cite a source, it …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in January 2025.
General guidelines Basically, when you paraphrase, the extent of the citation must be clear, meaning it must be obvious where the quotation begins and ends. It is usually not enough to just mention the source at the end of a paragraph or chapter. If you do not mention a source, it is assumed that it …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
Regulations When citing online sources, you should follow these two rules: Understand the principle: Readers must be able to classify the source and find it themselves based on your reference. Cite consistently: Stick to the chosen citation style throughout your work. We recommend treating a website like a printed publication – that means providing the …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
Info: Here you can find an overview of the overall structure of a Social Sciences paper. General regulations The bibliography contains the complete bibliographic details of the sources cited in the text. The types of sources are not separated; instead, all sources are listed alphabetically in a single list. If you are unsure about the …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in April 2025.
Empirical statements An empirical statement is usually based on (external) empirical research. A source reference is absolutely necessary here. Example: „The suspect rate among 14- to under 18-year-olds decreased from 7.0 % in 2007 to 5.5 % in 2015“ (Police Crime Statistics, 2015). If the empirical statement is based on your own observations or research, …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in March 2025.
The explanations in this article refer to the Guide to Scientific Work by Prof. Dr. Stefanie Müller, which many lecturers of the Faculty of Business Administration (BW) follow. Quotes style Müller (2012) recommends the use of footnotes to avoid interrupting the flow of the text. All footnotes are collected and listed at the bottom of …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
A few basic layout rules No matter which option you choose: When it comes to the layout of a paper, opinions often differ. If your lecturers (or later publishers or companies) provide fixed requirements for font, font size, line spacing etc., you should follow them. However, you are often allowed and encouraged to express your …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in February 2025.
Info: Here you will find an overview of the overall structure of a Social Science paper. Elements of a cover page Authors with student ID and email address Title, if applicable with subtitle – this does not necessarily have to be the research question Semester and year of submission Submission date Title of the course …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in April 2025.
Correct citation Laws and other legal norms are cited with their official title upon first mention in the text, e.g., “Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB)”. If the same law is mentioned again later in the text, a distinction is made: If it stands alone, without a paragraph or article, the name continues to be written out in …
This article was published in August 2025 and last updated in November 2024.
