Golden thread

The table of contents must be complete and logically consistent: It corresponds to the structure of the paper, which provides a meaningful, systematic, and logically coherent sequence of the topic covered. In a good structure, the subpoints relate to each other instead of following each other without connection. This structure becomes visible in the table of contents – also referred to as the golden thread, or red thread in German.

The quality of the paper’s structure is an essential criterion for evaluation.

Objectives and structure

This structure, reflected in the table of contents, should be self-explanatory. The goal is for readers to gain a first impression from the heading about what the chapters and subchapters are about. Understandable chapter headings usually consist of more than one or two words. Formulate headings concisely but as precisely as possible.

Depending on the scope and topic of the paper, dividing it into a maximum of three to four levels makes it more manageable. Often, two levels are sufficient. Too many subpoints fragment the paper and indicate that related topics were not grouped together sensibly.

The length of individual sections depends on their content, and you should aim for a suitable balance between the various chapters.

An outline is not a table of contents!

Keep in mind that your outline is a tool to help organize your text. After revising the draft, you should finalize the structure and naming of your chapters, which will then be set out in the table of contents.

Avoid these mistakes

• The table of contents reflects a paper structured in a way that is not appropriate for the subject of your work.
• The various topics are not clearly differentiated, i.e., main points do not form a logical frame for the subpoints, and subpoints are not mutually exclusive.
• The table of contents contains residual categories, such as “Other”. Check whether and where this content can be integrated sensibly.
• The research question is used as the heading of a section or the introduction.
• Page numbers are missing.
• Only one subpoint is included under a heading.

How it’s done

• The heading for a section sets out the principle for organizing the following subpoints, i.e., the upper tier in the structure forms a logical bracket around the subpoints below.
• The subpoints are mutually exclusive in content.
• If a chapter contains subpoints, there must be at least two.
• The content weighting of the subpoints is balanced.

Usually, you format the table of contents automatically using your word processing program: Word creates a table of contents based on your headings defined with formatting styles.

Example of a table of contents

The table of contents is a mandatory part of the structure of a scientific paper.

Frequently asked questions

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Formal elements before the main content

In the following order:

Main content

In the following order:

Formal elements after the main content

In the following order:

Frequently asked questions

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How do I create a mind map?

• You can continue to add, change, design: Arrows, symbols, colors, or numbering are suitable for this.
• Main branches can become chapters, while the branches represent chapter contents or subchapters.
• You can write initial first drafts for the individual sub-topics.

Take your time to create your mind map without rushing and reflect on how best to structure your ideas.

Digital mind maps

You can also create your mind map digitally with various computer programs:

• XMind (free)
• Free Mind (free)
• MindManager (campus license)

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Formatting

The table of contents carries the title “Table of Contents.” It lists all sections of the paper, including the bibliography, any other lists, and appendices. However, the table of contents itself is typically not listed as an item.

In the digital age of PDFs, it can be useful to include the page number of the table of contents itself in the listing so that readers can navigate more easily.

Only the content sections receive numbering – Arabic numerals are preferred. Page numbers are aligned to the right.

The logical flow

The table of contents must be complete and logically consistent: It reflects the structure of the paper, which should present the topic in a meaningful, systematic, and logically coherent order. In a good outline, subpoints relate to each other instead of following one another without connection. The table of contents should make this “common thread” clearly visible.

The quality of your paper’s structure is an essential criterion in its evaluation.

Goals and headings

YThis structure, reflected in the table of contents, should be understandable without further explanation. The goal is for readers to gain an initial impression of what the chapters and subchapters are about from the heading alone.

For this reason, clear chapter headings usually do not consist of just a single word.

Formulate headings briefly but as precisely and meaningfully as possible.

Nominal style is often used, but you may deviate from it. However, avoid mixing styles if possible.

In nominal style, actions are expressed using nouns: “The Analysis of …”; in verbal style, they are expressed using verbs: “Analyzing ….”

An academic paper is aimed at specialists with general knowledge and an overview of the issue. Accordingly, only terms and concepts that deal with the topic in depth need to be explained. However, avoid these in the table of contents if possible.

Division into subpoints

Depending on the scope and topic of the paper, dividing it into a maximum of three to four subpoints can make it clearer. Often, two levels are sufficient. However, you should never list just one subpoint.

Too many subpoints fragment the paper and show that related topics have not been combined meaningfully.

The length of the individual sections depends on the content, and they should be proportionate to each other.

Avoid these mistakes

• The table of contents reflects a faulty or unfavorable structure of the paper
• The division principle is not followed, i.e., main points do not form a content bracket for the subpoints, or subpoints do not exclude each other
• The table of contents contains leftover categories such as e.g. “Further Categories” – check whether and where these contents can be meaningfully integrated
• Page numbers are missing

This is how it’s done

• The heading states the division principle for the following subpoints, i.e., one outline level forms a logical bracket around the subpoints below it
• The subpoints are mutually exclusive in content
• If a chapter has subpoints, there must be at least two
• The content weighting of the subpoints is balanced

The table of contents is a required part of The Structure of a Thesis in Engineering and Natural Sciences.

Frequently asked questions

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Adjust the standard structure

Adapt the standard structure shown below to your topic and the approach you have chosen. Combine e.g. “Summary” and “Outlook” and replace the heading with meaningful titles without changing the meaning. You may omit elements that are not needed. In any case, discuss your outline with your instructors.

During the course of the work, the structure will be revised and adjusted repeatedly.

Formal elements before the main content

Main content

Formal elements after the main content

“Remember that every good structure adapts to the type of thesis. If deviating from a ‘regular’ structure benefits understanding, you may and should adapt it accordingly.”

– Prof. Dr. Matthias Hopf, Faculty of EFI, TH Nuremberg

Frequently asked questions

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What belongs in the introduction?

An introduction should answer three main questions:

• What topic does the paper address?
• Which questions will be answered regarding this topic?
• For empirical work: Which method is used to answer these questions?

It is often helpful for readers if you then present the structure of the paper, stating the focus of each chapter.

At this point, offer initial insights into your results instead of merely repeating the table of contents (see example below).

The following questions should be answered in the introduction:

• In which scientific, professional, or societal context does the topic belong?
• Which aspects of the topic are you addressing, and why?
• What significance does working on this topic have for science or practice?
• If relevant for your work: What current event prompted the choice of this topic?
• Which method was chosen to answer the question?
• How is the paper structured? How and according to which criteria are the chapters organized?

The introduction can have a thematic title (see example below) and should not exceed 10–15 percent of the total text.

Common mistakes in the introduction

Avoid these common mistakes in your introduction:

• The aim is not stated in the introduction.
• The introduction gives the impression that the topic is too broad because it is not made clear that only a specific aspect is addressed.
• The introduction consists of too many elements that do not fit together.
• The introduction contains elements that belong in the main body of the paper. The introduction should only present the content that will be developed in the main section.
• The professional context and the relevance of the research question are not evident.
• The introduction only explains the structure of the paper – but readers have already seen this in the table of contents.
• The introduction lacks motivation: Why was this work carried out with this specific aim?
• If you wrote your paper in cooperation with an organization: The organization is described in too much detail, and the description reads like an advertisement.

Example of an introduction

The introduction is a mandatory part of the structure of an academic paper.

Frequently asked questions

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