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Frequently asked questions

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Literature recommendations

Questions

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Title page

Make sure that all essential information is included on your title page:

• Topic of the thesis
• Thesis / Master Thesis / Project Report for the degree Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) or Master of Science (M.Sc.)
• By Jane Doe
• Supervisor: Prof. Prof. Dr. Firstname Lastname
• Nuremberg, DD.MM.YYYY (Summer Semester YYYY)

Examination declaration

The statutory declaration must not be missing from any thesis:

I, Jane Doe, Matriculation No. 123456789, certify that I have written this thesis independently, have not submitted it elsewhere for examination purposes, have indicated all sources and tools used, and have marked literal and analogous quotes as such.

Plagiarism Declaration in Accordance with Examination Rules: I herewith declare that I have worked on this thesis independently. Furthermore, it was not submitted to any other examining committee. All sources and tools used in this thesis, including literal and analogous quotes, have been identified.

Do not forget the date and your signature.

Publication declaration

This page must include the declaration according to § 19 para. 8 APO and the publication declaration of the thesis.

Here is the form.

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements should not exceed one page. They may also be omitted entirely.

Summary

This section contains a brief summary of the most important results of your work.

Remember that this section is the “business card” of your work.

Structure and features:

• Total 250 to 300 words
• Purpose / Objective (5–10 sentences)
• Method (1–2 sentences)
• Results (2–3 sentences)
• Value / Benefit (2–3 sentences)

The summary is also called “abstract”.

For the Master Project Report, the summary should be written in English only.

Used symbols and abbreviations

This section lists all symbols and abbreviations used as a reference.

Always make sure to follow DIN EN ISO 80000.

Latin symbols:

Greek symbols:

Contents – example

Introduction

The introduction presents the background of your thesis.

It informs readers about the important scientific, economic, or ecological contexts of your task.

It should clarify which current problems exist and why you aim to solve certain tasks in your work.

The introduction typically spans 1–2 pages.

Your introduction should answer the following questions:

• Why is your work important?
• What contribution does your work make?
• What is the objective of your work? (research question, hypothesis, research goal)
• How was the research conducted?
• If applicable: How is the work structured?

Theory or state of the art

The “theory” or “state of the art” section provides information on the most important theoretical and practical foundations of your thesis.

Ideally, use descriptive titles instead of just “Theory” or “State of the Art.”

If applicable, multiple chapters may be useful: Optionally work with subchapters.

Here you present the results of your literature research.

This also includes a critical assessment and discussion of the literature. After this, the readers understand the current state of knowledge or state of the art in the task area.

This section allows your audience to understand the type of work conducted, the analyses, and the subsequent evaluation or discussion of the results.

Focus on the essential aspects of your thesis, not on generally known fundamentals.

Information that is not necessary for understanding your work or not applied should not be described here.

Chapters 1 and 2 should together comprise approximately one-third of your thesis: guideline is 15–20 pages.

Objectives and problem solving

Clarify with your supervisor whether a separate chapter for objectives and problem solving is needed or whether these aspects can be included in the introduction.

If you use a separate chapter “Objectives and problem solving”, make sure not to repeat the introduction.

If you decide to include this chapter for a better understanding of your thesis, ensure that it fully covers the objectives or task description.

If your thesis involves multiple tasks contributing to the overall solution, it is helpful for readers to understand which tasks need to be completed and how you intend to solve them.

Explain your strategy for solving the overall research question so that it is clear why you perform certain experiments or measurements.

Materials and methods

In this section, you document your experiments or measurements.

Separate the description of the equipment used from the explanation of the procedure.

The following questions should be answered:

• Which devices (manufacturer), chemicals etc. were used?
• Which techniques were applied?
• How exactly did you perform the work?
• Why was this specific setup chosen?
• How were the obtained results analyzed?
• Are there factors that could influence the research?

Equipment:

Indicate which chemicals (incl. manufacturer and purity used) / devices were employed and how the experimental setup looked.

Methods:

Describe how you conducted your experiments or measurements.

The description must be such that your procedure is understandable and reproducible for the readers.

This section documents the experimental procedure so that other professionals can reproduce the experiments.

Record all parameters relevant for later analysis (e.g. device parameters, eluents, preparation of standard and sample solutions etc.).

The traceability of your results is a strict requirement of quality assurance systems based on ISO 9000 ff.

Measurement results and interpretations do not belong in this chapter.

If you develop a method, indicate the starting and final method and if applicable relevant intermediate steps.

Results and discussion

Present your obtained measurement results – display them in tables!

Everything presented in tables, figures, or schematics must also be introduced and commented on in the text.

If you have many spectra, chromatograms, or similar data, show only selected examples.

Avoid overly detailed displays in huge tables or too many measurement charts. If necessary, these are better placed in the appendix.

Your experimental results should be analyzed with respect to the fundamentals described in section 2 and, if possible, supported by statistical data, e.g. coefficient of variation, confidence interval, statistical significance of differences, number of replicates etc.

Remember: a picture is worth a thousand words.

In the discussion, evaluate the results. Discuss how well the results fit theoretical frameworks or models, and how well they correspond with known literature results.

Also discuss the consequences of the results with respect to the research question.

It is often useful to combine results and discussion in one chapter and use a thematic structure.

This ensures that the obtained results are immediately interpreted and the derived conclusions are applied to further development.

Results: Neutral (!) presentation; no interpretation or personal opinion; concise and precise numbers, data, and facts; illustration of results using tables or charts (must be introduced in the text and have self-explanatory captions).

Discussion: Discussion based on derived diagrams, tables etc.; interpretation of results; What do the results mean? Why are they interesting? What can we learn from the results? Discussion must answer the research question! Discussion is more than personal opinion; What does the literature say? How can the results be explained or reconciled with the literature? Where are differences compared to the literature? Why do they exist?

Contents of a discussion: Point out similarities and differences; describe causes and effects; compare with literature, derive, confirm or refute hypotheses; support your discussion with derived data (diagrams), calculations, or models.

Conclusion

Provide – in a maximum of two pages – information about the results you have achieved regarding the fulfillment of your research question and the consequences you derive from these results.

The conclusion should consist of three parts:

• Summary
• Limitations
• Outlook / Further Work

Summary:

• Summary of the most important findings from the work
• Should not contain new aspects
• The “promises” from the introduction must be kept

Show once again how great your work is (but do not exaggerate and always stay neutral).

– Prof. Dr. Dirk Sachsenheimer

Limitations:

• Specify limitations of your research (methodological, temporal, data collection)
• 3 to 5 aspects

Outlook:

• What would / could you research next based on your findings?
• 3 to 5 aspects

Literature

All sources used (textbooks, publications etc.) must be cited.

At the end of your work, include a complete literature list that details all sources.

More information on citing in chemistry and the literature list can be found in this article: Citing in Chemistry.

Used tools

All tools used (programs, AI-tools etc.) must be indicated.

This also includes Word, Excel, calculator etc. with version and exact name indicated.

Coordinate with your supervisors regarding whether and to what extent you may use generative AI-tools in your final thesis.

If you have questions or uncertainties, you can always contact your supervisors.

Appendix or attachment

All information necessary for understanding the work, which due to its volume or lower relevance does not fit into the main sections, is placed in the appendix.

Frequently asked questions

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Before you start

To write a good term paper, it helps to bring curiosity and interest in the topic. It is useful to be able to answer the following questions:

• Can you choose the topic and research question yourself?
• When is your submission deadline?
• Do you know what your lecturers expect from you?
• What framework conditions exist (length, formalities, submission format)?

It is best to start by noting what you already know and gathering additional information. At the same time, you can begin taking the first steps for your term paper.

Just start. No matter where – ultimately, you always begin in the middle.

Some lecturers publish assessment grids that clearly show what is expected.

Tip: Focus Writing

Focus Writing simply means writing continuously for five or ten minutes – on a topic or a question, without thinking too much about what and how you write. Write forward, without correcting or worrying about spelling and grammar.

What you write is only for yourself. This allows you to warm up, generate surprising ideas, or simply write off your frustration before the actual writing begins. And then you are already in the writing flow – writing and writing and writing.

• What do I already know about the topic?
• What do I want to know?
• What is my position on it?

Create a schedule

Do you have 15 minutes? Then it’s best to make a rough schedule for your term paper now. Rough, because it will probably change anyway. Still, it is good to have a plan.

1. When is your submission deadline? Enter it and plan backward from there.
2. Which steps are necessary? Make a list. Typical steps are: find a topic – read in – formulate research question – research systematically – create preliminary outline – draft text – revise – finalize
3. Estimate how long each phase will take. Don’t be surprised if it takes longer – this is completely normal.
4. Arrange feedback appointments with your lecturer, tutors, friends, or fellow students.
5. Plan buffers. Life will also get in the way.
6. Reserve fixed times in your calendar to focus only on your term paper.

Done! Now hang your schedule on the wall and adjust it regularly to reality.

In reality, the writing process is often chaotic and full of processes running in parallel and repeating constantly. As mentioned, this is completely normal.

Finding your topic

First of all, you need to be clear about what you want to write about.

Often your topic is not completely free, but is connected to the course topic. If it is freely selectable and you have no idea yet, consider the following questions (writing down your thoughts):

• What is currently being discussed in the academic field or current politics?
• What annoys you?
• Which problem are you confronted with?
• Where do you say a statement cannot possibly be true?
• Which question preoccupies you?
• What causes do you support (e.g. voluntarily)?
• What do you want/need to do in your studies anyway?
• What have you already discussed extensively?
• What surprised you?
• What do you want to do professionally?

What is the topic? Which aspects interest you the most? To find out, a technique such as clustering can be helpful. Give it a try!

Develop your research question

The research question will be the guiding star for your term paper. It is the touchstone that decides which aspects and arguments belong in your paper – and which do not. Usually, it takes some time to find an individually suitable research question, as it is connected with a systematic literature review. Design your research question so that there is enough literature available in this area.

Make sure to narrow down and carefully formulate your research question. Our narrowing table may also help you.

Example of narrowing down a topic:

Important: In addition to your main research question, there are also sub-questions that structure your term paper. Read more about the difference between topic, title, and research question in our OWL article Topic – Title – Research Question: Does it make a difference?.

Tip: Talk about your topic and research question.

Tell someone about your topic and engage in discussion. Observe yourself: What exactly interests me? Be as concrete as possible, have clear examples, and then try to align your research question with them.

With whom?

• Friend
• Fellow students
• Family
• Tutors for academic writing or politics
• Tutors from the Writing Center

Start your research

Collect literature related to your research question – this can include books, scholarly articles, studies, statistical data, or project reports from practical institutions. Use databases and the OPAC – Google and a AI tool alone are unfortunately not enough.

Check out the library training materials and the possibilities of systematic research by faculty-specific literature search.

Tips:

• Use the snowball method: Identify a central source that exactly fits your research question and then check its bibliography for further relevant sources.
• For library literature: Obtain your materials early and keep an eye on the end of the loan period!
• While reading, take notes that you can later use in your paper: quotes, arguments, thoughts, questions.

Further information on research can be found in our OWL article Starting your research. Library staff are also available to help you.

Watch a video that explains what a good academic source is — and what is not.

Are you at home and can’t access the OPAC? Here you can find a guide for online access outside the campus (VPN; EZProxy).

Define the structure

Even though different instructors have different requirements, all academic papers are similar in their structure: There is an introduction, a main part consisting of several chapters, and a conclusion.

A detailed explanation of the typical elements of a term paper can be found in our OWL article The Structure of a Paper in the Social Sciences.

A structure often changes during the process – both the content, the order, and the wording. So just get started.

Here is an example of a finished table of contents of a term paper. Chapter 1 corresponds to the introduction, 2 to 4 to the main part, and 5 to the conclusion. If you want, consider what the research question of this paper might be.

Here is another table of contents from a student term paper. What do you find good about this structure, and what would you maybe do differently?

Citing sources

In academic work, you may and should use texts of others as sources. The selection of the right sources for your paper depends on the topic and the goal of the work.

In general, always look for the best source! Trace the origin of knowledge and cite from original texts whenever possible. Brockhaus, lecture scripts, or Wikipedia, for example, are not citable.

Citable, on the other hand, is the Dictionary of Social Work (full text via VPN connection).

The difference between citable and worth-citing sources is explained in our OWL article Using the Right Sources. This video also explains why we cite at all.

Creating the bibliography

The bibliography is a list of all (and only) sources cited in the paper, either directly or indirectly.

It contains the full bibliographic details of the sources cited in the text, alphabetically sorted. Two examples:

Monograph: Butterwegge, Carolin (2010): Poverty among children with a migration background. Extent, manifestations, and causes. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

Edited book entry: Flemming, Helga von (2017): Altruism. In: Dieter Kreft & Ingrid Mielenz (Eds.-Connection): Dictionary of Social Work. Tasks, practice fields, concepts, and methods of social work and social pedagogy (8th rev. and updated ed., p. 89). Weinheim: Beltz Juventa.

How to list other types of sources in the bibliography can be found in our OWL article The Bibliography in Social Sciences.

Getting started with writing

Procrastinating, getting distracted, or getting lost – there are some pitfalls on the way to writing your paper, but also helpful strategies and concepts to move you forward. If you already have a plan: let’s go!

And if you get stuck, check out the video on writing strategies.

Good formulation

Language in academic texts should be:

• factual – not personal
• supported – with references to sources or data, or well justified
• neutral – not judgmental
• precise and unambiguous
• concise – remove unnecessary content
• formal – not too casual

Examples can be found in our OWL article Language in Social Science Texts.

Don’t worry if it feels difficult at first. Revise your paper multiple times, get feedback from others, and have it proofread at the end.

Tip: Online Course: Academic Language in Social Work Texts (45 minutes).

You are not alone

• Talk to others about writing and get text feedback.
• Take advantage of the support offered by your instructors.
• Use the library’s services (e.g., reference help and training materials).
• Attend the writing consultation of the Writing Center.
• Check the Social Sciences Academic Writing Guide. This guide is also the basis for many OWL articles!
• Form a writing group: In some modules (1.9 Political Science Basics and 1.1 Academic Writing) instructors initiate writing groups. Or simply join with fellow students on your own.

Writing with AI

AI tools like ChatGPT, Gemini, and others can write, summarize, or rephrase texts. When writing a paper, AI tools can help you:

• ask questions about the structure of your paper,
• formulate or revise a draft,
• find examples of academic phrasing,
• check spelling, grammar, and citation style,
• get feedback on style or readability.

But:

• Always check the content. AI can provide inaccurate, false, outdated, or made-up information.
• Follow your instructors’ rules: clarify if and how AI use should be documented.
• Writing is thinking. If AI does everything, you miss a learning opportunity. For your first paper, it might be a good idea to practice academic techniques manually first.

More information in our OWL article Using AI as a Writing Buddy.

Frequently asked questions

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What makes language scientific?

There isn’t the one correct scientific language, but rather a dynamic range of possibilities within a field. However, the language in scientific texts is generally:

• objective
• proven
• neutral
• precise and unambiguous
• short and concise
• formal

Write objectively

Write about content that is relevant to your research question at that point.

For the statement to be made (i.e., “The factors of successful reconciliation on the part of employees”), it is not relevant here whether companies provide teleworking options or similar. This could be addressed in the next or an additional section. The first sentence was deleted because its content is trivial.

Prove everything

Present findings that are verifiable and supported by evidence. Do not make assumptions. Claims must be identified as such.

Name the studies you use so that readers can assess the scientific validity, e.g., sample size, representativeness, and methods. In addition, the sentence is more precise and neutral after rephrasing.

Remain neutral

Avoid judgmental expressions. If you make evaluations, they must occur in an appropriate place and explicitly, e.g., in the conclusion.

“Unfortunately,” “far too high,” and “probably” are both evaluative and vague expressions.

Write precisely and clearly

Avoid long paraphrases if you can express the idea with a technical term. Even if clear language is required, remember: You are writing an academic paper for a specialist audience. Later in your professional practice, you will also write texts intended for experts, such as reports or concepts, which do not need to be understood by every layperson.

However, technical terms should be introduced and defined where necessary, if they are not widely known.

Here, the technical term “full-day school” can be used instead of a lengthy explanation. The different types of full-day schools are not relevant at this point.

Formulate concisely and simple

Academic texts are working documents that should be easy to read and understand. Therefore, formulate as briefly and clearly as possible, and do not hide your statements behind unnecessarily complicated words and phrases.

The example is awkward, redundant, and imprecisely worded. The phrase “as part of” can be omitted without changing the meaning. What is the difference between “diverse” and “very diverse,” or between “major differences” and “differences”? “When you deal with the topic” is an unnecessary filler. The adjective “regional” and the phrase “in federal states and municipalities” say the same thing. The sentence “Therefore, before this topic can be discussed, a definition should first be provided” is unnecessary because the text has already pointed out the inconsistent use of the term. If the definition follows, the sentence can be omitted.

The example contains filler words as well as evaluative and flowery expressions such as “incredibly fascinating,” “high proportion,” “offer hope.” The sentences can be phrased more precisely and concisely.

The sentence uses unnecessarily complicated phrases and sounds artificial.

Express yourself formally

A certain level of formality is expected in academic writing. Therefore, avoid colloquial language, jargon, and promotional language. However, do not use overly formal language either.

The word “dedicated” is used incorrectly in terms of meaning and grammar. It also sounds pretentious.

The phrase “shabby outfits” is colloquial and judgmental.

The phrase “success story” gives the impression of promotional language. The expression “about 70 years ago” is imprecise.

Every text written as part of your studies or your profession should also apply correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar. This is particularly true for academic work. An excessive number of formal errors may lead readers and examiners to doubt your overall diligence – for example, your academic work.

Use the spell check of your word processor, research grammar, and ask fellow students, friends, or writing tutors for feedback. AI writing tools can also help you proofread your texts.

It is normal to become text-blind while writing and repeatedly overlook even obvious mistakes.

Frequently asked questions

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As a rule, you already briefly introduce your research subject in the introduction. However, it is often common to explain your research subject in detail and precisely in the following chapter.

Example

Due to the moderate effectiveness and side effects of antidepressants, it is worthwhile to look for alternative treatment options. A relatively new intervention in the field of depression is jogging. Jogging is understood as slow running, comparable to the pace of fast walking (Newrezella 2009, p. 74). Occasionally it is also referred to as aerobic running, since the energy for the muscles is produced from muscle sugars and fats using oxygen, which is obtained, among other ways, through breathing (Bartmann 2005, p. 21). One study was able to prove that jogging has an antidepressant effect for all age groups and both genders, with women benefiting even more from the sport than men (Reule and Bartmann 2009, p. 19). Although the effect of jogging on depression is still a relatively unexplored area, positive factors have already been proven, which are explained in more detail below.

Source: Slightly modified from a student paper in the module “Academic Work, Methods and Learning Strategies” (anonymous)

The description of the research subject is an obligatory part of the structure of an academic paper.

Frequently asked questions

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